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Cke Country 
Boy& Cr€€D, 

I bdieve that the Country which Gob 
made is more beautiful ihatvihe ~> 
City which man made; that life out- 
o£cloors and in touch with the earth 
i5 the natural life of mart, I believe that 
work is work wherever we find it, but"* 
that work withlsJature is more insptr 
ircr than work with die most intricate^ 
machinery, I believe that the diohtty- 
of labor depends not on what you do, 
but on how yoa do it; that opportun- 
ity comes to a bey on the rartn as - 
often as to a bey in the city, that life 
ts larger and freer and happier on 
the farm than in the town, that my- 
success depends not upon my loca- 
tion, but upon rnyselF-not upon my 
dreams, but upon what I actually bo, 
not upon luck, but upon pluck* I be- 
lieve in working when yenx work - — 
and in play inc; when you play and. 
in living an& demanding a squares 
deal in every actj>f life ♦ *— *"-** 



Rural Education 

A COMPLETE COURSE OF STUDY 
FOR MODERN RURAL SCHOOLS 



— BY — 

A. E. PICKARD 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 
COKATO, MINNESOTA 



WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY 

ST. PAUL, MINN. 

1915 



^ 






COPYRIGHT, 1915 

BY 

WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
W-l 



JUL -6 1915 



CI.A401651 



PREFACE 

This book is the outgrowth of a series of lectures on 
Rural School Organization in the Minnesota state summer 
schools for teachers and of several revised courses of study 
planned for and executed in rural schools under the super- 
vision of the author. 

While there are many books that treat of school organi- 
zation and management, but few, if any of them, are written 
from the modern standpoint of an industrialized rural 
school; that is, a redirected course of study in which a 
broader and better country life is the ultimate aim. Except 
from this point of view the academic outlines and discus- 
sions probably contain little that is new. Even the division 
plan to avoid the evils of a closely graded rural school is not 
entirely an innovation. That some plan to avoid the thirty 
or forty daily recitations usually found in the country 
schools must be put into active operation before real effi- 
ciency can be expected is admitted by all who are familiar 
with the situation. The plan here suggested is not mere 
theory. It has been successfully used by scores of teachers 
during the last half dozen years. After all, "As is the 
teacher so is the school." 

In this period of educational unrest there is need for 
something more definite to guide the inexperienced teacher 
who has so little direct supervision, especially the rural 
schoolteacher. In this connection the section of the book 
devoted to industrial work should prove helpful. 

Finally, rural education is broader than the curriculum 
of the schoolroom, which fact the author has tried to em- 
phasize in some of the chapters in the first and last sec- 



6 RURAL EDUCATION 

tions of the book. Rural teachers, normal training classes, 
farmers' clubs and reading circle organizations should be 
benefited by discussions of some of the topics here sug- 
gested. If in some small way the book may be an inspira- 
tion to those who are laboring for the upbuilding and en- 
nobling of rural life, it will not have been in vain. 

Acknowledgments are cheerfully given to all those who 
have in any way assisted in the preparation of the book. 
Thanks are especially due to my colleagues, Mr. L. E. 
Stock well for assistance in the chapter on "Manual Train- 
ing"; Miss Marie Henegren for much valuable aid in pre- 
paring the chapters on "The Hot Lunch" and "Sewing in 
Rural Schools"; and Mrs. L. A. Bortel for suggestions on 
the music outlines. 

Gratitude is also extended to Mr. Lorenzo Zwickey, art 
supervisor and lecturer, for his generous aid in preparing 
the outlines on "Art"; Mr. J. B. Frear and the Minnesota 
College of Agriculture for kind permission to select material 
from Bulletin 136 for the rope work given in Chapter XVII; 
Miss Alma B. Campbell and Mr. Carl Anderson, superin- 
tendents of Dodge and McLeod Counties, Minnesota, re- 
spectively, for the loan of numerous industrial booklets; 
and to the numerous friends who have read various chapters 
and offered valuable suggestions. 

A. E. PICKARD. 

Cokato, Minnesota, 
May, 1915. 



CONTENTS 

Proper Environment Page 

I. Introduction 9 

II. Some Suggestions for Parents and Teachers 19 

III. Hygiene and Health 28 

IV. Play and the School Playground 38 

V. Training Rural Teachers 54 

VI. School Management 70 

Academic Work 

VII. The Course of Study 77 

VIII. The Daily Program.. 88 

IX. Teaching Reading 100 

X. Language and Literature 117 

XL Spelling, Writing, Music and Art 132 

XII. History and Civics 153 

XIII. Geography 167 

XIV. Numbers and Arithmetic 175 

XV. Seat Work and Special Devices 187 

Industrial Work 

XVI. The Trend of Industrial Education 202 

XVII. General Industrial Work 210 

XVIII. Sewing in Rural Schools 241 

XIX. The Hot Lunch 279 

XX. Manual Training '. 303 

XXL Agriculture and Agricultural Booklets 331 

XXII. Horticulture Booklets 340 

XXIII. Animal Husbandry Booklets 346 

XXIV. Home Economics Booklets 355 

XXV. Other Booklets for Rural Schools 360 

Country Life 

XXVI. Activities Outside the Schoolroom 363 

XXVII. The School as a Social Center 373 

XXVIII. Association of Schools 380 

XXIX. Consolidation of Rural Schools 409 

XXX. The Ideal Rural School and Country Life 418 

7 



RURAL EDUCATION 



CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

The average reader omits the preface of a book and seldom 
reads the appendix. Hence, much of what might properly 
be placed in these divisions has been included in the regular 
chapters. 

Most books of this kind are of very general nature. Our 
purpose is to supplement those already available with more 
definite suggestions and outlines for programs and courses 
of study not only for the academic work, but also for the 
so-called industrial work, some of which is now demanded in 
nearly every community. 

During the last few years education has assumed new 
aspects, which are reflected from the courses of study. The 
answers of students and parents as to what constitutes an 
education and why certain courses are pursued are interest- 
ing. Usually the laboring man wishes his children to be 
educated so that they will not have to work as hard as he 
had. The well-to-do desire education for culture and social 
distinction. Others see the vocational side only. Too often 
the teacher's idea is to cram the students' memories 
with facts from books. Without further discussion we might 
define education as preparation for life. 

It should be remembered that the school is only one factor 
in education, and, important as it is, without the co-opera- 
tion of the home and the church, the needs of the child will 



10 RURAL EDUCATION 

not be properly supplied. The world has seen many an 
educated man who has had little or no schooling, while some 
college graduates are sorely in need of education. 

The different units of our system of education in America 
have been too dependent upon one another; that is, the aim 
of the elementary school has been preparation for the 
high school; the high school has prepared for college, and so 
on. This routine is perhaps not so true of the average high 
school the last ten or twenty years, as the greatest changes 
in the courses of study have occurred in these schools; but it 
is still true in the great majority of rural schools. At least 
their courses of study have not yet been adjusted to meet 
the needs of the community and to make education a prep- 
aration for life. 

The tremendous importance of new adjustment can be 
realized when we reflect that ninety-five per cent of our pop- 
ulation have received their education, as far as the schools 
are concerned, in the elementary school, most of them in the 
rural school. 

We appreciate that the necessities of the people of a 
century ago, or even of twenty-five years ago, are not the 
needs of the present generation; but we have been slow to 
adjust the schools to the new conditions. The three R's 
will no longer meet the needs of society or business. With 
the demand for more subjects to be taught in the elementary 
school as well as in the high school comes the necessity of 
reorganizing not only our courses of study but the units 
that make up our educational system and the mechanics of 
the schoolroom. Our hard and fast graded system has 
some advantages, but many disadvantages. . It could be 
tolerated in our town and city schools, if it were not for the 
fact that the rural schools are trying to imitate the city 
schools. The author has made a study of the rural school 



INTRODUCTION 11 

problem for the last few years in his work in summer train- 
ing schools for teachers, and has found a great many cases 
where one teacher has not only attempted to conduct 
eight grades, but has actually been trying to run a kinder- 
garten as well; that is, she has had a sub-first grade or chart 
class. In some cases so-called high school work has been 
done also. Elimination, combination, and alteration will at 
least partially help to cure some ills of the rural school. 

In commenting on the American school system some one 
has made the remark that no sane person would have planned 
it as it now exists. Who has determined that it should take 
just eight years to complete what is known as the elementary 
school, four years for the prescribed high school course, four 
for college, and then, for the few who can afford the time 
and means, from one to four years more in some technical 
school to fit them for their vocations? How came we to 
have eight grades in our elementary schools? Was it a 
gradual evolution based upon sound philosophy and peda- 
gogy? On the contrary, the history of education will show 
that it has come about by chance. The early New England 
schools were conducted by the clergy. These later devel- 
oped into our present intermediate grades, the fundamen- 
tals being given in the homes. Later the primary schools 
systematized the home training and prepared for the earlier 
established schools. Then the academies were founded, and 
as it became evident that the elementary schools did not 
fully prepare those who could attend the higher institution, 
the grammar schools came into existence to meet this defect. 
The academies were organized, of course, to prepare students 
for the colleges, then few in number. 

Thus it can be seen that from the beginning each unit 
was made the stepping-stone for that immediately following, 
and it is only natural that that idea has remained so long. 



12 RURAL EDUCATION 

From these units, having their origin in different ways and 
at different times, have come our three divisions of the ele- 
mentary public school, primary, intermediate, and grammar, 
a grade for each year; the academy is represented by the 
public high school; and the state universities and denomi- 
national colleges have adopted largely the organization and 
curricula of the earlier endowed institutions, as Harvard, 
King's College, now Columbia, and William and Mary's. 

It is said that there are over eighteen millions of students 
in the United States, and about one half a million teachers, 
an average of about one for every three dozen pupils. 
Many teachers have more than this number. An average 
animal trainer will be given about one twelfth as many at 
one time, and the most valuable animals have two or three 
trainers. This is not because horses, for example, are 
thought to be more valuable than children, but because we 
have not yet learned to value the training of children. 

While, perhaps, it is not the most important, it is well 
for us to remember the economic side of education. If the 
parent could be made to realize that each day in school is 
actually worth dollars to the child, we should not have need 
for compulsory attendance laws. 

Comparing an estimate of the average earning capacity 
of an elementary school graduate with a high school grad- 
uate we find the former capable of earning about two hun- 
dred and forty dollars the first year, and the latter about 
six hundred. It can readily be seen that the sum which 
put at interest at six per cent will produce the annual earning 
capacity, will represent the value of the earner. In the case 
of the elementary school graduate this would be four thou- 
sand dollars. This sum probably also represents the average 
of the grade graduate over the uneducated person. The 
estimate is for only the first few years after school life. In 



INTRODUCTION 13 

the case of the high school graduate the acquired capital 
would be equal to ten thousand dollars. Counting one hun- 
dred and eighty days to the year, the grade pupil would 
accumulate capital at the rate of $2.77 a day for eight years, 
and the high school pupil, at the rate of $8.44 a day for four 
years. A high school graduate, therefore, has laid away a 
working capital of $4.63 a day for twelve years. Approxi- 
mately the same relative increase of earning capacity would 
be true for normal and college graduates. It should, there- 
fore, be clear that education has a money value, and it is 
shortsightedness on the part of parents to allow children to 
remain out of school. If the parents were actually receiving 
this amount in wages for the attendance of their children 
at school, the solution of the problem would be easy. In- 
stead, it takes the form of an annuity for the children them- 
selves. Parents, as a rule, are not yet altruistic enough in 
this respect. 

An authority has stated that about three fourths of the 
students leave school before finishing the common branches. 
About one third of these leave because poor circumstances 
at home do not permit their attendance at school, while two 
thirds leave because they and their parents do not find what 
they want in the schools. The school authorities must meet 
these conditions squarely and adjust the schools to their 
environment. The practical trend in modern education 
should help to solve the problem. 

Comparatively few schools are run on a business basis. 
It is the duty of the board of education to attend to the 
finances of the district. Too often members are elected 
who know little of business principles and less of pedagog- 
ical precepts. As soon as school boards come to see that it 
is wise for them to look after financial affairs only, leaving 
the management of the school, the ordering of necessary 



14 RURAL EDUCATION 

supplies, etc., to the teacher, or superintendent where there 
is one, there will be at least one step toward more efficiency. 
If the teacher is not big enough for these responsibilities, 
one should be secured who is. I have known schools to 
wait weeks for supplies, because some board member thought 
it was his right and honor to order supplies that the teacher 
might have obtained in a few days. Board members should 
remember that they do not suddenly become educational 
experts merely because they happen to be elected to the 
board of education. A certain member of a high school 
board of education a few years ago could neither read nor 
write. While this is an exceptional case, it is, nevertheless, 
true that communities should show more interest in their 
schools and use more care in the selection of their officers. 
More than one school board has had to go out after citizens 
to get a quorum at the annual school meeting. It is only 
when one of the periodic "fights" is on in the district that 
the full voting strength is out. The county board for gov- 
erning rural schools is gaining ground, and should relieve 
the present situation materially. Probably few board mem- 
bers would admit that they are responsible for part of the 
inefficiency found in the schools; but teachers realize the 
true situation even if the board members do not. Such 
conditions are not confined entirely to rural schools, but are 
usually better in independent districts. 

In the commercial world the watch word is efficiency. 
Every piece of machinery is made with that in view. Every 
worker must come up to a certain standard. Educational 
efficiency has been the recent slogan. It would seem that 
there is much room for improvement in this particular, 
especially in the rural schools. One has only to check the 
time wasted in the mechanics of the schoolroom, the poorly 
arranged programs of many young teachers, aimless seat- 



INTRODUCTION 15 

work and study programs, to say nothing of the ill-adapted 
courses of study for country students, to realize the oppor- 
tunity for increased efficiency in the rural schools. If only 
ten per cent of the cost of the schools of the country could be 
saved by increased efficiency, it would mean a saving of about 
one hundred millions of dollars annually. It is a mat- 
ter that manufacturing establishments would investigate. 
Schools cannot afford to overlook it. This amount spent 
on better equipment and increase of teachers' salaries would 
further increase the efficiency. It is not cheaper, but better 
schools that the average community should have. School 
boards and teachers should take this view into consideration. 
A subject that should be discussed in every school dis- 
trict until all voters and taxpayers understand it, is how 
the school funds are raised and to what sources the taxes 
paid by each individual go. These facts should be taught 
in the schools and discussed at the annual school meeting, 
farmers' clubs and other gatherings. Many invariably 
charge up any increase in taxes to the schools, whether they 
may or may not have been the cause of it. A statement 
from the county auditor will show just where the money 
paid in taxes goes. Each teacher should get this list from 
her district, and make it the basis for supplementary work 
in arithmetic. The following is a tabulation for a rural 
district in Minnesota in 1914. 

LOCAL TAXES. 
To What Sources. Rate on Valuation. 

State revenue 3.8 mills 

State school fund 1.23 mills 

County revenue 2.53 mills 

County road and bridge 2.85 mills 

County poor 29 mills 

Town revenue (township) 9 mills 

Town road and bridge 5.9 mills 

Local tax 5.00 mills 

Total taxes 22.5 mills 



16 RURAL EDUCATION 

From this table it can be seen that part of the taxes goes 
to the state, part to the county, part to the township, and 
the rest to the school district. In the above case it was 
about equally divided among the four. The figures natu- 
rally vary a little from year to year, but the sources to which 
the taxes are paid remain the same. Knowing the assessor's 
valuation of the property, any student who understands sim- 
ple decimals can determine the amount paid to each source. 
It is well to be able to compare what the local district raises 
for the support of the schools with the money received from 
other sources for this purpose. 

Most states provide aid for the schools in some way. 
Minnesota is one of the most conspicuous in this respect. 
A wise provision in the state constitution set aside sections 
sixteen and thirty-six of each township as school lands. 
These lands with the timber on them have now mostly been 
sold and the money has made a permanent school fund. 
Recently iron ore has been discovered on school lands and 
the royalties from this will increase the school fund enor- 
mously. This fund is now second only to that of Texas and 
amounts to about twenty-five millions of dollars. It is 
estimated that it will eventually reach two hundred or two 
hundred and fifty millions. The interest on this, now 
amounting to about one million dollars annually, is appor- 
tioned to the districts of the state according to the number 
of students in the district coming up to certain requirements 
prescribed by the state authorities. This amount is now 
about six dollars per pupil. 

There are other forms of aid in. this state by legislative 
enactment for the various classes of schools. State high 
schools now receive $1,800 annually, with from $1,200 to 
$2,800 extra for those having teachers' training departments. 
Twelve hundred dollars is given for one teacher, $2,000 for 



INTRODUCTION 17 

two teachers, and $2,800 for three. Graded schools receive 
$600, and $100 for each grade teacher in excess of four and 
$250 for each high school teacher. Total aid not to exceed 
$1,300. 

Rural schools in session at least eight months receive 
$150 for each teacher holding a first class certificate. Rural 
schools in session at least seven months receive $100 for each 
teacher holding a second class certificate. 

Each school receives, in addition to other aid, library aid 
amounting to $10 for each teacher employed, with a maxi- 
mum of $25 to a building, provided the district appropriates 
a like amount for the same purpose. 

In many schools the local districts do not pay half the 
running expenses of the schools. The following statement 
of a rural district shows this. 

Sources Amount 

Apportionment, 50 students at $7 $350 

State Aid, first class school 150 

State Aid, associated 50 

State Aid, library 10 

Total state aid $560 

Local school tax, two and one half mills 192 

Total resources $752 

In its report to the Educational Association at St. Paul, 
October, 1914, the Minnesota Rural School Commission 
recommended that: 

"Every child in the state of Minnesota has an unquestioned right 
to equal school privileges regardless of wealth, social position or loca- 
tion. 

That the State Aid at present only reaches the schools best able 
to help themselves, and that the most needy schools not able to meet 
requirements for state aid are taxed to help the more fortunate, the 
county unit should be used as a basis for taxation for school purposes 
and that the finances, length of term, kind of teacher, etc., be in the 
hands of a county board of education, elected at the annual school 
meeting and consisting of one member from each commissioner di,s- 

2— 



18 RURAL EDUCATION 

trict, leaving each district intact for the details of its own management. 
The County Superintendent to be appointed by this Board. 

That consolidation has been an unqualified success in nearly every 
case and that it should be encouraged by every possible means at 
command, wherever conditions are such as to make it practicable. 
Finally this Commission has found that the rural schools have better 
equipment, better sanitation, better grading, better attendance, longer 
school year, better co-operation, broader and more practical knowledge, 
better and more libraries, more free textbooks, more attractive school 
rooms, better buildings, more State Aid, higher salaries, better teachers, 
better supervision, the training of the hand through industrial work, 
domestic science, agriculture, manual training, better morals and 
more loyal friends than ever before." 

This would seem to be a more equitable distribution of 
school taxes. In some states, as California, the school tax 
is uniform throughout the commonwealth. 



CHAPTER II 
SUGGESTIONS FOR PARENTS AND TEACHERS 

There is urgent need for closer co-operation between 
parents and teachers. Very often the success of a school 
is measured by the sympathy of its supporters. Teachers 
should move into a new community before school opens, in 
order to become acquainted with the parents of all their 
pupils. Some teachers object to doing this on the ground 
that it is contrary to social etiquette. This notion is likely to 
result in sorrow, if the teachers meet the parents for the first 
time after they have had to punish the children. If teachers 
object to making social calls before meeting the parents, 
they should make professional calls. A favorable acquaint- 
ance must be established as soon as possible, if the best 
results are to be attained. 

Parents should be equally interested with the teacher in 
the school and the training of their children. An informal 
gathering at the schoolhouse or some home shortly after 
school opens tends to promote acquaintance and sympathy. 
The school children should be present also. Such a meeting 
will encourage the teacher at the start and make her feel 
at home in the community. But mutual interest should 
not end there. 

Regular meetings of parents and teachers at the school 
house are helping to solve many problems. These meetings 
should be held at intervals of about once a month and con- 
sist of programs and discussions, and may be followed by 
light refreshments and a social hour. In most places teachers 
must take the initiative in this work, and should be prepared 
to do so. 

Parents often do not realize how much help they can give 

19 



20 RURAL EDUCATION 

the teacher and that without this aid they impede the prog- 
ress of their own children. Children are allowed to criticise 
the teacher at home and with other children. Sometimes 
the parents even join in the criticism. It is conceded that 
at the outset parents and teachers have only the welfare of 
the child at heart. Both should keep this common interest 
constantly in mind, and, when little difficulties arise, as they 
always will, it is the duty of the parents, as well as of the 
teacher, to see that they are speedily adjusted. 

A prominent educational lecturer and writer makes the 
statement that the average school has better discipline than 
the average home, and he is undoubtedly correct. Yet the 
parents who cannot manage their children at home are the 
very ones who usually make the most trouble when discipline 
is administered in school. I like the philosophy of that 
parent who told his children that every time they got a "lick- 
in' " at school, they would get another when they got home. 
He didn't stop to inquire whether they were right or wrong, 
but he had faith in the teacher. 

Corporal punishment should be used only as a last resort 
either in the home or school, but that parent or district 
that prohibits its use is unwise, as there are always children 
to whom physical force makes a stronger appeal than reason. 
Granting that there is always some other way out of the 
situation, if the teacher only knew how, there are times when 
the best interests of the school will not permit further experi- 
mentation. The parent who will deny the teacher the use 
of the same methods he uses in correcting his children is 
unjust and arbitrary. A wholesome, oldfashioned spanking 
properly administered, never hurt anybody who deserved it, 
and often did much good. 

On the other hand, punishment should be used with 
great discretion. The best teachers seldom have to resort 



SUGGESTIONS TO PARENTS AND TEACHERS 21 

to it. A case or two at the beginning of an administration 
will usually suffice. A good rule for both parents and 
teachers to follow is, "Never punish a child while you are 
angry." It is a serious offence to make discipline a personal 
matter, and yet many persons do. A quiet, earnest talk 
will often do as much or more good than punishment. Pun- 
ishment should be followed not only with respect for author- 
ity on the part of the child, but there should be the best 
personal feeling between the persons concerned. This result 
is not always easy to obtain, but it is a pretty sure test of 
the efficacy of the punishment. One child under school age 
used to thank the parent after each of these little "times," 
as he would for any other service rendered. There was 
usually not the slightest enmity, and the frequency of the 
occasions became less as he advanced in years. 

The best way to avoid mischief and punishment is to 
arouse the pupil's interest in his studies and especially in 
collateral activities such as school gardens, care of an animal 
or the investigation of some valuable facts. Unruly boys, 
when thus engaged, have often become forceful and progres- 
sive factors in a community and the delight of a teacher. 
They are generally not so bad as that their energies have 
not been directed into congenial channels. 

The responsibility of the parent in the training of the 
child before it enters school cannot be too strongly empha- 
sized. Some children are spoiled before they are a year old. 
That is, they have learned to have their own way, because 
the parent unwittingly compromises or gives in entirely to 
save time and bother. Between a fond mother and an 
indulgent father, many a child is handicapped for life, and 
there is usually trouble in store for the teacher. It has been 
said that every woman should have a course in psychology 
and child study that she may properly train her own chil- 



22 RURAL EDUCATION 

dren. It may be said with equal truth of the men. Too often 
the mother is the only disciplinarian in the home. The 
father is away, or too busy, or indifferent. Occasionally a 
well meaning but misguided parent actually encourages that 
"smarty" spirit that is now so common among young Ameri- 
cans, on the plea that it develops originality and independ- 
ence. If there is one thing needed more than any other in 
the training of the present generation, it is the proper re- 
spect for constituted authority in the home, the school, and 
elsewhere. 

Again, parents are sometimes not careful to use the same 
methods in training the children. What the father requires 
in certain cases is not carried out by the mother in his absence, 
and vice versa. In this way it is easy for the child to set up 
two standards of discipline, or " behavior" as he calls it, and 
it may lead to deceitfulness on his part. Matters are still 
further complicated if the teacher uses her own character- 
istic methods. Here is another reason why the teacher 
should be intimate enough with the parents to be able to 
discuss these matters freely with them. 

Directions to children should be positive. Speak once 
and be sure that you are understood. The careless, in- 
effective way in which many suggestions are given accounts 
for the fact that some persons are taken only half seriously. 
Directions are too frequently repeated two or three times in 
order to secure obedience. Have you ever been in a home 
where you felt like taking matters into your own hands? 
Are you sure you have never seen similar conditions in the 
schoolroom? This state of affairs is not the fault of the 
children in either case. 

Education is an evolutionary process, an unfolding, con- 
stant development. The old idea of "pouring in" is sup- 
posed to be changed to the "drawing out" process. The 



SUGGESTIONS TO PARENTS AND TEACHERS 23 

brain is made up of millions of small living particles, cells, 
each capable of development under certain conditions, 
better at certain ages of the individual than others, and 
very much less capable after a certain age. Just as the 
muscles of the body develop with use and shrink away with 
lack of exercise, so the cells of the brain must be used, and 
a person must do mental work in order to develop them 
and to maintain their development. As it is difficult for 
elderly persons to learn a new language, because they have 
passed the age for that kind of training, so it is impossible 
for a young child to study algebra or grammar, because it 
has not yet reached the age for reasoning. Yet, knowing these 
principles, how many of us put them into practice? The 
students do not know their lessons and the teacher recites 
for them, that is, she does the talking. Parents work the 
"examples" for children so they may get one hundred per 
cent in arithmetic at school the next day. Is this the draw- 
ing out process? How many brain cells have been devel- 
oped? Undoubtedly some, but not the kind that should 
be developed. 

Science has demonstrated that mental development is 
dependent upon physical. A sound mind can be produced 
only in a healthy body. Good health is, therefore, one of 
the first requisites in education. Games and outdoor 
sports should be provided not only in public parks and school 
grounds, but, if possible, in every home yard. Parents 
sometimes object to having children waste time in play and 
say they can find plenty of work at home for them to do. 
There are chores to do, and the woodpile needs replenishing 
or there are floors to scrub. Those who object to organized 
play as exercise and recreation, should remember there is 
much truth in the old saying, "All work and no play makes 
Jack a dull boy." Games, outdoor life, and good health are 



24 RURAL EDUCATION 

so closely related to each other and to mental development 
that they will be discussed fully in the next two chapters. 

Child study has brought out the fact that there are three 
more or less distinct periods in the physical and mental 
development of the individual: (1) the period before eight 
years, in which the child is taught by precept and learns 
largely by imitation; (2) from eight to fourteen, sometimes 
spoken of as the drill age; and (3) that after fourteen, 
known as the adolescent period. Knowledge of the chief 
characteristics of these periods will greatly assist those in 
charge of the training of children, and books on this subject 
should be read by every parent and teacher. 

Most of the first period, of course, is spent in the home 
before the child attends school. The importance of proper 
home training is evident from the statement of authorities 
that the child learns more during the first five years of its 
life than in any other five years. Its chief acquisition is a 
language, and, if incorrect expressions are learned at this 
time, because they are heard in the home, they are likely to 
be used in after life. Every teacher knows the difficulty 
of undoing these earliest impressions. Biologists tell us that 
the child develops in the same manner as the race. Hence, 
we find in the young child those traits characteristic of prim- 
itive man, such as fear, curiosity, imitation, selfishness, 
action, intense sensations, destructiveness, color, life, and 
motion. Other manifestations of this period are love of 
animals, desire for praise, emulation, and interest in con- 
crete wholes. After the destructive period, when the young 
child wants to tear and break everything in his possession, 
comes the constructive age when he wants to make things. 
Building blocks, boxes, etc., will satisfy these wants. Froe- 
bel's gifts, beginning with the colored balls, are excellent 
for the home and the first year in school, as they have been 



SUGGESTIONS TO PARENTS AND TEACHERS 25 

carefully worked out on pedagogical principles by that great 
educator. This is also the inquisitive age of the child, and 
"why" and "what" are his favorite words. Little interest 
in time is shown. It is a physical impossibility for chil- 
dren to reflect on things as those who are older, because 
their connective mental fiber has not yet developed. Hence, 
teaching is done by precept, and the child does what he sees 
others do. Imitation is the process, not reasoning. It can 
readily be seen that this formative period is the most im- 
portant in the life of the child. A good primary teacher 
should be obtained" at all costs, but parents should under- 
stand that they rob the child of its inherent right if they do 
not fit themselves for its proper guidance when it is most 
dependent on them. 

The period from eight to fourteen is one where the teacher 
can do much for the child, if the parents have done their 
duty. It is the drill age in school. The latter part of this 
period is not one of rapid physical growth, and the child can 
stand plenty of mental work. There is no danger of over- 
work for the healthy child during this time. Things that 
require memory work and much repetition, such as tables in 
arithmetic, correct expressions in language, spelling, facts in 
geography, and literary selections should be emphasized. 
Later on, drills and reviews will be disliked, but not by the 
average student at this time. Much interest is shown in how 
things are made, hence the zeal with which manual training 
and home economics are taken up when there is opportun- 
ity. Interest is also shown in structure, material, form, size, 
place, detail, adventure, etc. Animal stories, particularly 
bear stories for the boys, will always hold the attention. 
Remember that this is the great habit forming period. 

At about fourteen, a year or two earlier usually for girls, 
a profound change comes over the individual, the period of 



26 RURAL EDUCATION 

adolescence, or the beginning of maturity. This period is 
usually accompanied by rapid physical growth for a few 
years. It is, perhaps, the most trying time at home or in 
school and requires much tact and skill in management. 
Students are changeable and must be "handled with gloves." 
Teachers should remember that more or less of these ap- 
parently abnormal traits are perfectly natural, and make the 
best of the situation. There is real danger of overwork at 
this time, but it is well for parents to keep in mind that it 
is more likely to come about from social functions and keep- 
ing late hours than from work in the schoolroom. Boys 
need the companionship of fathers and men teachers who 
are interested in their welfare, and girls should have the 
advice and sympathy of mothers and women teachers. 
Many educators believe it would be better to have separate 
schools for boys and girls for a few years at this time, but 
such are probably impossible, at least as far as most country 
schools are concerned. Interest is shown in aesthetics, 
beauty in nature, music, art, dramatic expression, and 
literature. Love of truth, sentimentality, love, altruism, 
morals and religion are topics that claim attention. It is 
the age of reasoning, and the student should be allowed to 
develop his originality and individuality. 

The teaching of religion is a problem that should be 
carefully considered and its solution would not be difficult. 
Churches could give religious instruction independent of 
school and outside of school hours. Capable teachers might 
be employed and school credit given for methodical and 
substantial work. In the mean time moral instruction 
should be given incidentally or from a prescribed course, 
and selections from the Bible. Some of the Psalms and 
Old Testament narratives may be taught for their literary 
and moral value. 



SUGGESTIONS TO PARENTS AND TEACHERS 27 

A topic discussed with a great deal of interest at the 
last meeting of the National Education Association was that 
of sex hygiene. There is no doubt that one of the gravest 
mistakes that parents have made in the past is the shroud- 
ing in mystery of all questions pertaining to sex. It is the 
most natural thing in the world for the child at an early 
age to want to know about some of the mysteries of life. 
The child who has been put off with the explanation that 
the stork has visited the home will soon realize that he has 
been deceived, and the parents have lost the very thing so 
much needed to safeguard his early life against evil doing — 
his confidence. Any parent must know that children are 
going to learn the truth somewhere, and yet most parents 
have been absolutely indifferent toward this matter. As a 
consequence children often discuss subjects pertaining to 
sex, to their own detriment. It is the exception not to 
find on the outbuildings of school premises manifestations 
of unclean minds. The teacher has no more difficult 
matter with which to deal, and yet what assistance does 
she get from the homes? Twentieth century enlightenment 
should speedily eliminate the medieval notion that sex and 
shame go together. There is nothing more beautiful for 
the young child to hear than the life history of some of the 
lower animals first, as the frog, chickens, kittens, or other 
animals with which he is familiar, and finally the child 
itself — told as they are, and not mis-stated on account of 
false modesty. It cannot be stated too emphatically that 
no parents have done their duty to their children, who have 
not enlightened them on these truths of life before they 
have found them out elsewhere, so that they still have 
their confidence, which is the key to the situation. It will 
then be an easy matter for the school to do its part in the 
teaching of sex hygiene. 



CHAPTER III 
HYGIENE AND HEALTH 

It was stated in the last chapter that good health is 
one of the first requisites in education, because mental 
growth is dependent upon physical development. The 
teaching of systematic hygiene is now compulsory in most 
states, but many teachers must surely stretch their con- 
sciences when they sign the report that the requirement 
has been met. Perhaps the reason such poor instruction 
has been given in the schools may be found in the fact that 
there has been so little good material available in texts or 
supplementary reading, and the teacher is not qualified 
without it. During the last few years better books on 
hygiene have appeared, so that excuses no longer exist for 
not teaching the subject. 

Little anatomy and physiology should be taught in the 
elementary schools, but there should be a regular period for 
health talks and hygiene. If there is no other time avail- 
able in a crowded program, part of the opening exercises 
or general period may be used. It is the purpose of this 
chapter to point out some of the unhygienic conditions 
found in the home and schoolroom that should receive the 
attention of those in charge. 

Statistics show that over six hundred thousand children 
under one year of age die annually in the United States, 
largely from preventable diseases. This is an appalling 
statement, and shows conclusively the necessity of instruc- 
tion for those who will be responsible for the coming genera- 
tions. The infant has about the same chance of living 
through the year as a person eighty years old. This is 
largely due to improper feeding and the ignorance and 

28 



HYGIENE AND HEALTH 29 

carelessness of mothers who could nurse their own babies, 
but who refuse to do so. 

There is a mistaken notion that most young persons are 
subject to the ills of childhood, such as measles, chicken 
pox, whooping cough, scarlet fever, etc., not to mention 
such common things as toothache and earache. Some 
parents even go so far as to take their children where they 
will be exposed, so they will be sure to have all the conta- 
gious diseases. This idea is absurd. Nature never intended 
children to suffer with any of these diseases. They are 
usually the result of carelessness or lack of knowledge of 
some of the common principles of hygiene. "An ounce of 
prevention is worth a pound of cure" is really beginning to 
be believed, and we are willing to pay the physician for 
keeping us well rather than for curing us after we are sick. 

Water, milk and flies are the most common causes of in- 
fection. Nearly everybody knows that water will become 
polluted if the well is too near the barnyard or outhouses, 
and yet very often little attention is paid to these 
conditions in locating the well. Barns are seldom as san- 
itary and well ventilated as they should be, but we all know 
that tuberculosis is the greatest scourge the world has 
to-day and that it is very often contracted by using the milk 
from infected animals. Some dairymen even refuse to have 
their cattle tested free of charge, lest this disease may be 
discovered and they may have to stand part of the loss of 
the animals. 

Many states have now banished the common drinking 
cup in public places, and still we find much carelessness in 
the homes, and sometimes even in the schools. Inexpen- 
sive fountains attached to cooling jars may now be obtained 
and should be in every home and school where there is not 
something better. So much has been said and written 



30 RURAL EDUCATION 

about flies as disease carriers that "swat the fly" has become 
a household phrase. There is still, however, much room 
for improvement in sanitary matters. Barnyard manure, 
garbage, and slops thrown out in the back yard are all 
breeding places and harbors for flies. Outhouses are usu- 
ally pestilential places. Buildings may be well screened, but 
flies will get in, if allowed to breed on the premises. 

In most homes and in some schoolhouses there is no 
system of ventilation. Great care must, therefore, be taken 
or the air will become impure. A very simple test for foul 
air is to make a little lime water by pouring water over 
some unslacked lime and allowing it to stand until the 
liquid is clear. Put a few spoonfuls of this liquid into a 
bottle or fruit jar and allow it to stand in the room where 
the air is to be tested. It should stand for two or three 
hours, or, if preferable, over night. Then shake it up. If 
a white precipitate is formed, the air contains too much 
carbon dioxide and is unfit to breathe. If the jar is taken 
from one room to another, it should be filled with water, 
emptied, and allowed to fill with air from the room in which 
the air is to be tested. Otherwise, the air in the jar, carried 
from the other room, would be used. 

Sleeping in rooms with the windows open soon becomes 
a habit, and should be the rule throughout the year. There 
is a popular belief that "night air" is not good to breathe. 
Some one has said that the only night air not fit to breathe 
is last night's. Open up the windows not so much to let 
fresh air in as to let the foul air out. Young children should 
be given a nap in the open during the whole year. Even 
in the coldest weather there is nothing to fear, if they are 
well covered. Children have come in from a sleep in twenty 
degrees below zero weather, warm, rosy cheeked, and re- 
freshed from the pure air. More importance must be 



HYGIENE AND HEALTH 31 

attached to fresh air in cold weather, because the house is 
generally poorly ventilated. Colds are not caught in pure 
air, no matter how cold it is. A cold, misnamed and more 
logically called a "stuff aire," is caused by bacteria that 
thrive in foul, stuffy air. Because colds are so common, 
they are looked upon lightly and often neglected. We 
forget that they may pave the way for pneumonia, tuber- 
culosis and other serious diseases. One of our leading 
authorities on hygiene believes the time will come when 
persons with colds will be segregated or quarantined the 
same as those afflicted with other highly infectious diseases. 

The care of the teeth has been sadly neglected in both 
home and school. Probably seventy-five per cent of the 
children in the grades suffer from an unhygienic condition 
of the mouth, and yet many of them receive little or no 
attention. Dr. Ernest Hoag, an authority on school hy- 
giene, has determined that about forty per cent of the 
children in the grades have from five to ten decayed teeth. 
The effects of such a condition upon both physical and 
mental development are beginning to be realized. If the 
schools taught nothing but mouth hygiene, and taught it 
effectively, it would be much better than the present phys- 
iology and the half-hearted way in which it is taught in 
most schools. If the baby teeth are allowed to decay, the 
mouth will become diseased and the permanent teeth can- 
not be good. The child should be taught to use a brush 
early so that the habit will be formed before the second 
teeth appear. Military authorities and insurance companies 
recognize the value of good teeth. 

Dr. Harvey W. Wiley says, "Unhealthy mouths, de- 
caying teeth, and neglected gums are doing far greater 
damage to the people of this country than smallpox " 



32 RURAL EDUCATION 

Many homes and almost all schoolrooms have children 
affected with adenoids, but until recently little attention 
has been given to them. Even where the teacher has been 
wide awake and called the attention of parents to some of 
these conditions, they have been indifferent or even offended. 
The symptoms of adenoids are so plain, the removal so 
simple, and the effects upon the child so marked, that those 
who are responsible for its welfare cannot afford to be neg- 
ligent. Mouth breathing, sore throat, earache, and prom- 
inent front teeth are pretty sure signs. These symptoms 
are caused by the soft, spongy growth in the back of the 
throat, that obstructs the air as it passes through the nose 
to the lungs. Naturally, the child will use the only other 
avenue he has to get air, and he becomes a "mouth breather." 
In some cases the throat becomes so clogged that even 
mouth breathing does not furnish enough oxygen, as many 
aenemic children show. The warm, spongy substances are 
excellent incubators for disease germs. Thus the throat 
often becomes sore, and the tonsils diseased. Because the 
mouth is open so much, the roof grows high and narrow, 
and the front teeth, crowded, become crooked and elongated. 
I have seen many school children, having had adenoids and 
tonsils removed on Saturday, back in school Monday morn- 
ing. There was a marked change in their attitude toward 
school work within a few weeks. Sometimes this change is 
not so apparent at first, but it is always more or less per- 
manent. In advanced cases the physical deformities may 
never entirely disappear. Most of the restlessness in home 
and school can be traced to physical defects discussed in 
this chapter. That is why parents and teachers should not 
only be familiar with the facts, but enthusiastic enough to 
act after these are known. Many valuable books on hygiene 
are now available for those who are interested in them. 



HYGIENE AND HEALTH 33 

One in every four or five children in school is affected 
with some kind of eye trouble. Sometimes serious cases 
go unnoticed by parent and teacher. A case in my own 
experience was a little girl sitting in the back of a school- 
room, whom I noticed straining her eyes, in attempting to 
read something on the blackboard. Superficial examination 
with the vision chart showed that she was practically blind 
in one eye, and the vision in the other was very defective. 
The teacher had worked with the child for months, and even 
the parent did not know there was anything wrong with her 
eyesight. Still worse : nothing was done after the facts were 
known. The penalty will probably be blindness for life. 

Another case was that of a boy who became so near- 
sighted that he had to hold his book within two or three 
inches of his eyes in order to read. Finally, specialists were 
consulted, and two or three operations were performed, but 
with only temporary relief. He was doomed to total blind- 
ness. He had been neglected so long that cataracts had 
formed in both eyes. It was with difficulty that he was 
kept from reading library books, even in this serious state. 
He was of Polish descent and, with his usual stoicism re- 
marked to me one day that he must finish "Thaddeus of 
Warsaw" while he could see. Such instances are all the more 
pathetic when we remember that in most cases the defects 
could be remedied, if treated in time. The most common 
eye defects found in the schoolroom are nearsightedness, 
farsightedness, and astigmatism. The first two are caused 
by defects in the shape of the eyeball. When the eyeball is 
too long, the image is formed in front of the retina and the 
person is said to be nearsighted. When it is too short, the 
image is formed back of the retina, and farsightedness is the 
result. Astigmatism is caused by a defective cornea or lens 
of the eye. While these defects can be determined in a 

3— 



34 RURAL EDUCATION 

general way by the teacher, a specialist should always be 
consulted. These troubles can be remedied by using glasses 
properly adjusted. Most of the heada'ches of the school- 
room are caused by eye troubles. 

Inflamed, sore eyes are caused by infection, which, unless 
they receive proper care, may cause serious trouble. In 
many homes the common towel is as prevalent as the com- 
mon dipper or drinking cup. It is usually the cause of the 
spreading of sore eyes to others. As a preventive the paper 
towel can be used cheaply and effectively. 

Earache is common among children and is often mis- 
understood. Get rid of defective teeth, adenoids and other 
throat trouble, and the earache will take care of itself. It 
is nearly always caused by infection from these sources. 
Whenever the ear "runs," there is partial deafness, because 
the drum is punctured and should be cared for at once. 
When the causes of earache are removed, nature will 
usually heal the drum of a young child, if the rupture is not 
too large. Earache is an inflammation, and while hot appli- 
cations are often used to relieve it temporarily, they some- 
times make it worse. Cold water put in the ear, or cold 
applications, will often give the desired relief. Drugs are 
dangerous and should never be used in the ears, unless pre- 
scribed by a physician. 

The cigarette habit surely should be mentioned in a 
discussion of hygiene and health. This is a most serious 
problem. While alcoholism is decreasing each year in the 
nation, it would seem that the tobacco habit is increasing. 
The effects of tobacco are probably just as injurious to the 
growing child as alcohol, and any experienced teacher can 
pick out the cigarette "fiend," without even looking at his 
yellow finger nails, by his dulled sensibilities and lack of 
interest in school work. When parents and adults in general 



HYGIENE AND HEALTH 35 

fully realize the economic loss to society, not to mention the 
moral side of the question, public sentiment will probably 
assist teachers in enforcing laws intended to protect minors. 
In the meantime, the teacher can hardly do more than to 
show the evils as effectively as possible, and enlist the 
aid of parents. Of course those teachers and schoolmen 
who are themselves users of the weed, even though it be only 
to the extent of the " social cigar," will find the situation 
somewhat embarrassing and ridiculous. 

At the beginning of the chapter it was stated that 
improper food was the cause of a large percentage of the 
mortality among children. Those who survive are often 
weakened by uninformed mothers. Investigations con- 
ducted in our own schools determined that over ninety per 
cent of the students above the first grade drank coffee once 
or more daily. About half in the first grade used it as often. 
One authority says that a cup of tea or coffee is j ust as inj uri- 
ous to the young boy or girl as a glass of beer. How many 
parents there are who would not think of letting their 
children drink beer, and yet they give them other injurious 
drinks. A child in one of the intermediate grades became 
so nervous that he had to withdraw from school. He could 
neither sit still nor hold a pencil without shaking it, and was 
in a pitiable condition. This same child usually drank 
coffee three times a day, and ate all manner of unfit things 
at meal times and between meals. The cause of his nerv- 
ousness was not hard to find, but it did not seem to bother 
his parents. 

It was also found that many children were getting any- 
thing but balanced diets. Some ate little or no breakfast 
besides the coffee. Many had eaten only starchy foods, 
and where they were repeated at noon, and sometimes at 
night, there were sour stomachs. Sweets and pickles were 



36 RURAL EDUCATION 

very often eaten too lavishly, while bread and milk and other 
old fashioned, but wholesome, dishes for children were con- 
spicuous by their absence. Verily the present generation 
of mothers needs instruction in sanitation and dietetics. 
The teacher must help. 

For those who have to carry lunches to school it is all 
the more necessary that the other two meals should be suit- 
able to their needs. Some of these lunches were found to 
be entirely inadequate. Some consisted of only bread and 
syrup, not even butter on the bread. And this was not due 
to poverty in the home, but to lack of j udgment. It would 
seem that the warm dishes prepared by the students under 
the direction of the teacher would meet universal approval, 
as nearly all country children have to eat cold lunches, but 
there is often objection. Teachers have had to be very 
tactful in serving them. Whether the opposition comes 
from a supposed reflection on the cooking at home or from 
an imagined extra cost, or for some other reason, has not yet 
been determined. As soon as the benefits are more fully 
realized, and teachers are better prepared to undertake this 
work, the hot lunch will undoubtedly become an established 
custom. It will be discussed under another chapter. 

The reader should not become pessimistic because the 
conditions enumerated here are likely to confront the teacher. 
They may be bad enough yet, but they are growing better. 
The average community is slow to appreciate the necessity 
of medical inspection, but as soon as public sentiment will 
permit, it will be given in all the public schools. In the 
meantime, what can the teacher do to help? Some things 
have already been suggested. 

As soon as possible after the opening of school, the 
teacher should test the eyes of all the students. She may 
do so by using a vision chart usually furnished free by the 



HYGIENE AND HEALTH 37 

state department of education. Directions are given on 
the chart and should be carefully followed. Test each eye 
separately, and notify the parents of any cases of defective 
vision. Place the students so affected so that they will be 
at the best advantage possible as to light, nearness to black- 
board, etc. The ears may be tested by blindfolding the 
pupils and letting them listen to the ticking of a watch, first 
with one ear and then with the other. An ordinary watch 
should be heard at least three feet. Let the pupil answer 
when he hears or when he does not hear, and be sure that 
he does not imagine his answer. The teeth can easily be 
examined without offense to pupil or parent. Start a tooth 
brush club in the school and keep a record, giving each one 
who brushed his teeth before starting to school a star or 
some other recognition. The effect is sometimes marvelous. 
Some schools also have a bedtime club, and those who go to 
bed before a certain hour get a star. Parents have told me 
how very much interested their children have become, 
stating that those who had not cared how late they stayed 
up would complain that they would lose the star, if they 
were not in bed on time. 

Teachers should become familiar with the symptoms of 
the common infectious and contagious diseases, so that 
suspicious cases may be isolated before the whole room 
becomes exposed. It is now pretty generally agreed that it 
is very poor policy to close the school in case of an outbreak 
of disease, as the medical authorities can control it much 
better with children in school than scattered all over the 
community. Children do not stay at home when the school 
is closed. They are likely to mingle with their neighbors 
more than when going to school. 

Finally, it should go without saying that the teacher 
herself should put all her theories of hygiene into practice. 



CHAPTER IV 
PLAY AND THE SCHOOL PLAYGROUND 

Play should be of much more interest to parents and 
teachers than it is at present. During the last fifteen years 
leading educators in many countries have been making a 
scientific study of play and its relation to the development 
of the child. Long ago Spencer, Hegel, Pestalozzi and 
Froebel had pointed out the value of play in education. 
Much of this early discussion was theoretical, however, and 
only recently its true value is being recognized. Even yet 
systematized play under trained supervisors is confined 
almost entirely to large centers, and is financed by the 
municipalities, the Young Men's Christian Association and 
other organizations. 

Play has been regarded as merely something to occupy 
the spare time of small children, but entirely unnecessary, 
or even out of place, for children old enough to work. That 
thousands of American children have been cheated out of 















■ " if y 


SSE? 


' bJ^ * 






- a | 



Figure 1. Maypole dance, Lewiston, Minn. 
38 



PLAY AND SCHOOL PLAYGROUND 39 

their birthrights, and became prematurely old, is evident 
from the existing child labor laws. They are of interest to 
the sociologist. The educator sees a deeper meaning in 
play. Play has long been recognized as a necessary activity 
for the surplus energy stored up in the nerve cells. 
G. Stanley Hall, Dr. Gullick, and others who Have made a 
serious study of this subject, find in play a manifestation of 
those traits of the human race that have been handed down 
from generation to generation. Hence, the absolute neces- 
sity of play in the proper development of the child. John- 
son, in his admirable work, " Education by Plays and 
Games," says: "I would not claim too much, but I cannot 
believe that there can be any education in the true sense of 
the word that does not deeply involve the emotions and the 
will, that does not take root in the inheritances that have 
come down from the motor habits of the race; and as these 
motor habits, endeavoring to persist in the present, are in- 
volved in play, we find there the surest and nearest approach 
to a true education of the child. Just as the physician in 
his search for a cure for consumption has circumscribed the 
earth and finally come back to the thing in all the world 
the simplest and nearest, the first demand of the child upon 
entrance into the world, — fresh air, — so we in our search 
for the best means of educating our children are coming 
back to that which was the first expression of his awakening 
soul, his play." 

That play is natural and instinctive is evident to any- 
one who has observed children. As soon as the child is old 
enough to notice its environment, at the age of a few months, 
play begins. At first it may be the fingers that hold the 
attention. A little later a rattle and colored ball are ap- 
preciated. In the second chapter we considered three 
periods of the development of the child. Play may be 



40 



RURAL EDUCATION 




Figure 2. Supervision on the playground. 



classified for those 
same periods, and 
games selected that 
will be suitable for 
each. There are 
many games suitable 
for both sexes. Oth- 
ers should be select- 
ed, however, that 
will be especially 
adapted to each sex. 
The season of the 
year should be kept 
in mind in planning 
games for children. 
That systematic play should be a part of early home 
training is certain. The ancient Greeks gave this training 
and developed a race that have been unsurpassed in physical 
perfection and beauty. It would be best if every home had 
a room for children's play, but this provision is probably 
impossible in many homes. The next best plan is to have 
a tent or play house in the yard. The materials may be 
very simple and homemade. Every yard should have a 
sand bin about three by six feet and filled with clean sand 
from the lake shore. If lake sand is not obtainable, sub- 
soil will do, but the gravel should be screened out. A sand 
pile containing a load or two of sand should be available. 
Some tin cans or pails and large tin spoons for shovels will 
be all that is needed. The educational value of the sand 
pile and bin for young children can hardly be overestimated. 
Other simple apparatus for the home yard is a "teeter," 
or see-saw, a low swing, short homemade slide, indoor base- 
ball, croquet, horseshoes or quoits, and tether-ball. It 



PLAY AND SCHOOL PLAYGROUND 



41 



should go without saying that the yard and lawn should be 
made as attractive as possible. A hedge instead of a fence, 
green lawn, ornamental shrubbery, and some flowers, with 
very little expense, and some labor that will be profitable for 
every member of the family, will bring the desired results. 
The reason these decorations are not found in almost every 
home yard is certainly not due to expense. It is usually 
lack of interest. Parents who complain that the children 
always want to play at the neighbors should consider ways 
and means for making their own yards more attractive. 




<■>'% 



Figure 3. A modern "teeter. 



Children should be encouraged to have pets, especially 
poultry or some other profitable animals. They will also 
take great interest in a vegetable and flower gardens, if they 
are given the seeds and the proceeds from them. Parents can 
well afford to pay children the market price for poultry and 
vegetables to get them interested in something practical, 
and in simple business transactions. This work is so closely 
connected with play that it is proper to discuss it here. 
There is so much of the play element in work and the work 
element in play for young people that it is sometimes dif- 
ficult to distinguish between work and play. 



42 RURAL EDUCATION 




Figure 4. Work and play. 

Play is necessary in the home and it is equally important 
at school. Not only on the grounds, but in the primary 
division at least, it should be utilized to a much greater ex- 
tent in the actual classroom work. Some of the dreadful 
ideas young children get of school before they become ac- 
customed to the work of the school room would not material- 
ize, if school work were made more natural for them. 

I contemplated my first day in school with terror, as I 
had been threatened with having my ears amputated. I 
was, therefore, forced to school screaming. When the 
"master" appeared, I told him with emphasis that I would 
not go inside. He merely smiled, but somehow that smile 
caught me unawares, and I was soon inside. At recess, 
however, I took a position with my back to the school- 
house, so that I could guard my ears. This teacher, of 
whom I felt in terror, to my utter astonishment, handed 
me a whistle, and, taking one himself, spent a part of the 
recess in showing me how to use it. There was not a day 
from that morning till now that I would not have fought 
for that teacher, if necessary. 



PLAY AND SCHOOL PLAYGROUND 43 

His successor was fully as tactful. Recess and noontime 
would find him on the play grounds leading the games. 
There were action games for the little folks, in which they 
would get acquainted and feel free and natural; crack the 
whip, duck-on-the-rock and similar games for the next 
group; while two-old-cat, cricket, and association football, 
where all could take part, were the delights of the oldest 
students. These teachers had not only the respect of that 
large school of sixty pupils, but their admiration and love. 
I am sure the playground activities had a great deal to do 
with their success. As soon as the bell rang, play ceased 
and work began. And how we did work! 

For some reason the average teacher does not like to 
mingle with the students on the playground. Some teachers 
seem afraid they will lose their dignity; others fear they will 
lose the control of their pupils; while others are not in 
sympathy with the games. The first two classes are surely 
mistaken, as experience would soon teach them, if they are of 
the right kind, and the last class should never enter the school- 
room as teachers. I believe most heartily in supervised play, 
not the rigid, reserved kind that takes away all spontaneity; 
but the resourceful, sympathetic supervision that makes 
the recess worth while, so that the child wants to play be- 
cause the teacher is interested enough to play with him. 
Observation shows that where interest Jags in the playground 
sports, the fault is almost entirely with the teacher. She 
should realize that the teacher is responsible for the children 
from the time they leave home in the morning until they 
return at night, and that more mischief is often done in fifteen 
minutes recess, that might have been avoided if she had 
been "on the job" directing their play, than she can undo 
inside the school in a week. It is the duty of every teacher 
to plan her playground program as carefully as any other 



44 BURAL EDUCATION 

part of the work for the day. Better by far have no recess 
than to turn the students out to do just as they please. 
Those who have not tried it, should investigate the recess 
and noon periods and find out what is being done on the 
grounds. If the reader is not satisfied with the result ob- 
tained at recess and noon, he should get one or more of the 
books mentioned in the reference list and become enthusi- 
astic over the playground. 

Curtis, in discussing organized play in the school yard 
says: "Some teachers seem to feel that it is beneath their 
dignity to play with the children, and one often hears the 
old saw, 'Familiarity breeds contempt.' Whenever I hear 
this quotation in this connection, I always feel like complet- 
ing it by its implied condition. Familiarity reveals you as 
you really are. It leads to contempt, if you are contemptible. 
If familiarity makes you contemptible to your father and 
mother, your brothers and sisters, it will make you contempt- 
ible to the children as well ; but if, on the other hand, you wish 
to be a real friend to the children and have a lasting influence 
over them, there is no other way. The person who sits 
upon a platform of assumed dignity and answers our ques- 
tions by 'y es ' or 'no' and gives us sage advice about our 
conduct has very little influence upon us either in school or 
outside of it. Everywhere the testimony of the teachers 
who are sympathetically playing with their children is that 
this play solves the question of discipline." 

What has been said will suffice to show that play is as 
essential in the country as in the city schools. It should 
not stop at the playgrounds of the school. A quarter holi- 
day in which the entire school is taken on an excursion should 
be a frequent thing especially in the spring and fall. This 
recreation will not merely be an outing. There are so many 
topics in nature study that can best be studied at such times, 



PLAY AND SCHOOL PLAYGROUND 45 

that the teacher will not find it difficult for the students to 
get both profit and pleasure out of such trips, if she is awake 
to the opportunity. Many schools now plan something 
special for Halloween, Thanksgiving day, Christmas time, 
and other occasions. Children who plan and take part in 
a social function on Halloween will not usually participate 
in the foolish pranks sometimes played at this time. 

Some teachers feel that it is impossible to do anything 
without expensive apparatus, such as that found in the city 
grounds. This is a mistaken notion. Most of the play- 
ground materials for the rural schools can be homemade. 
Curtis, in his book on "Play and Recreation" gives the ex- 
perience of forty-seven rural schools in Winnebago county, 
Illinois, that had no money for this purpose; so they held 
socials that raised the sum of $1,638.27 or about $35 a school. 
Half of this amount would make a good start for any school, 
with the enthusiastic aid of pupils and teachers. The follow- 
ing apparatus and games, not all necessary for any one 
ground, will be suggestive. 

The sand bin is one of the first things that should be 
constructed. If more than one is made, about four by six 
feet would be a convenient size. It should be about twice 
this size, if there is but one. Even if the district is willing 
to furnish it, this is a piece of apparatus that the children 
themselves should make. A few ten or twelve inch planks 
and some nails or stakes will be all that is necessary. A seat 
around the edge will make it better, but is not imperative. 
Some of the older students will usually be willing to haul the 
sand after school or on a Saturday. All will not need to cost 
more than the price of the planks, and possibly four persons 
can bring one each for the four sides. The bins should be 
made in some shady corner of the grounds not used by the 
larger students. They need no bottom, and will soon 
dry out after rain. 



46 RURAL EDUCATION 

Now some will actually wonder what good a sand bin is, 
and likely most of the parents will be among the first. But 
any good primary teacher will know its value. Sand bins 
are for the little folk of the school. The sand table of the 
lower grade rooms will indicate some of the uses. Here the 
history stories will be reproduced, geographical formations 
worked out, and the imagination developed; but, above all, 
the children will be playing, and in their natural element. 

A smooth, straight track for running races should be made 
along one side of the school grounds. It should be as long as 
possible up to one hundred feet, and conveniently marked 
off for shorter races. A jumping pit can easily be made at 
one end by digging out the earth and putting in a few inches 
of sand or sawdust mixed with earth, to deaden the jar. 
Running and jumping are healthful exercises and children of 
all ages enjoy them. 

Swings may be constructed easily, if desirable, but it 
is hardly possible to have enough for all who would use 
them, and they are better for the home yard than for the 
school playground. They should be low, safely constructed, 
and out of the way of children playing other games. 

A giant stride is better than the swing, as more can play 
and there is little danger of one's getting hurt. Even 
this can be homemade. For the rotary top a small 
wagon wheel is placed at the top of a stout pole about 
fifteen feet high. A strong rope is attached for each child 
and should hang so low as to be easily reached. When 
all are ready to start, the rotary motion is begun by the 
children's hanging on to the ropes and running around the 
pole. Centrifugal force will soon take them off their feet 
part of the time, and they can either swing out or jump 
along as they desire. The giant stride is always a popular 
piece of playground apparatus. 



PLAY AND SCHOOL PLAYGROUND 47 

Tether-ball is one of the best games that can be played 
on the school ground, but it will accommodate only two 
persons, or at most four at one time. Two or three poles 
could be erected, about three inches in diameter and twelve 
or fourteen feet high. A mark of some kind is made about 
six feet up on the pole around which the ball is to be wound, 
one side trying to wind it to the right and the other side to 
the left. A circle six feet in diameter is drawn around the 
pole, and a straight line through the pole divides the players. 
A tennis ball inside a netting and attached to a string is 
fastened to the top of the pole. The server takes the ball 
in one hand and strikes it with a racket, (a smooth, flat 
board will do) and tries to wind it around the pole. The 
side, or person, winding it up first wins the game. Tether- 
ball is excellent exercise, and is interesting, if played right. 

Volley ball should be a popular game, as the entire school 
can take part. Six or eight on a side is the usual number, 
however. The game is played with a large inflated ball 
similar to a basket ball. The ball is served by one of the 
players from the back line of the court, and an attempt is 
made to bat (with the hand) the ball over the net into the 
opponent's court before he can strike it back with his hand. 
The ball is batted back and forth until one side misses and 
it touches the ground. Those who fail to return it yield 
a point to the other side. The player missing the ball is 
the next server. Two twenty-minute halves ma}^ be played 
as in basket ball, and the side scoring the largest number 
of points wins the game. Volley ball is a new game, but 
is very popular, not only in the school, but with business 
men in their clubs. Physical directors recognize this game 
as one of the very best that serve the purpose of corrective 
gymnastics. It can be played indoors or out in the open, 
requires little space, and very inexpensive equipment. When 



48 RURAL EDUCATION 

the game can be played out of doors, the courts should be 
twenty-five by fifty feet each. The net should be at least 
seven feet high and attached to posts set two feet outside 
the side lines. 

Indoor baseball is appropriate for any home or school 
playground. As the name indicates, it is a popular indoor 
game during the winter months. The rules are similar to 
ordinary baseball, except that the pitcher must deliver the 
ball under-handed instead of overhanded as in baseball. 
The runner on the base cannot leave until the ball has 
passed over the home plate or has been hit by the batter. 
The game has a decided advantage over baseball, in that 
3^ounger children can play it, as well as the girls and women 
teachers of the schools. The ordinary rural school seldom 
has older boys enough to play baseball. Another advan- 
tage is in the small space required for "playground ball/' 
as indoor baseball is often called. The bases are usually 
only thirty-five feet apart. The pitcher also stands thirty- 
five feet from the home plate. A large, soft ball from 
twelve to seventeen inches in circumference is used, and a 
small club about half the size of an ordinary ball bat com- 
pletes the equipment. The small-sized ball is better for 
the older persons, and the large ball for younger children. 

Tennis is pre-eminently a country game, as it requires 
plenty of room and may be played by two or four persons. 
The same net used for volley ball can be utilized for tennis. 
It should be stretched across the middle of the court, three 
and one half feet high at the posts and three feet in the 
center. Small, two ounce balls and thirteen or fourteen 
ounce rackets are used. The court should be seventy-eight 
by thirty-six feet where there is room, but smaller space 
can be used. If the sod is removed and the ground leveled, 
a better game can be played. The court is marked off with 



PLAY AND SCHOOL PLAYGROUND 



49 





76 


ft 














El ft 


-IN 


18 -ft 












»2 






<r 














« 



Figure 5. Plan of a double tennis court. 



lime. The player who first delivers the ball is the server. 
His opponent is the striker-out. After each game the 
players change sides. The server stands with one foot 
outside of the base line, strikes the ball with the racket, 
and attempts to deliver it on his opponents court, which 
is diagonally opposite his own. If he fails in the first 
attempt, he uses the other ball. In case the second is a 
failure, the striker-out becomes server. When the ball is 
delivered properly, and the opponent fails to return it, the 
server scores fifteen. The second score is called thirty, the 
third, forty, and the fourth, game. In case each side wins 
forty, the score is called "deuce." The winner of the next 
stroke scores an "advantage," and, in case he wins the 
next score also, he wins the game. If he loses, his score 
goes back to "deuce." In other words, a player must win 
two successive strokes after scoring "deuce," in order to 
win the game. The side first winning six games wins a 
set. A complete set of rules showing also how to lay out 
grounds can be obtained for ten cents. 

The horizontal bar is a simple piece of apparatus that 
will be used a great deal in the home or school yard. Two 



RURAL EDUCATION 



or three bars should be placed in posts that are five or six 
feet apart. There should be a few inches difference in the 
height of the bars. They may be made of old fork handles 
or a piece of gas pipe. Sand, or some other soft material, 
should be placed under the bars. 
A coaster slide may be home- 
made, if care is taken that the 
boards are smooth. Objection is 
sometimes made to 
the slide by mothers 
who have the clothes 




Figure 



A coaster slide. 



Similar slides may be made for the home and 
school grounds. 



to mend. It is doubtful, however, if a smooth surface like 
this is as hard on clothes as the seats of the desks in the 
schoolroom. Small children especially enjoy this piece of 
apparatus. 

Hurdles are merely the old-fashioned wooden "horses" 
made a convenient height for jumping and placed at inter- 
vals of a few yards or rods, as desired. The grounds, or 
even the road, will be suitable, if there is no special place 
for running such races. This is a good form of exercise, 
and will please young and older children alike. 

Football of the modern type, or rugby as it is called, is 
too strenuous a game for rural schools or even for village 



PLAY AND SCHOOL PLAYGROUND 51 

schools, where there are but few large boys. A much better 
form of the game is the association football, or soccer. 
This is an open play game, not dangerous nor too severe, 
and yet requires great skill on the part of the individual 
player. This game is true to name, as the large, round ball 
is really kicked with the foot, in contrast to so much hand 
play in rugby. It is also a more interesting game for specta- 
tors to watch than the other form of football. In many 
rural schools of the East it is one of the favorite games. 
The ball costs from three to five dollars, and may be ob- 
tained from dealers of standard athletic goods. Complete 
rules of the game are furnished. 

Basket ball has become one of the common games in 
villages and larger places, but it has not yet come into its 
own in the country. It is indeed seldom one sees a basket 
ball court on a rural school playground. The rings may be 
made at any blacksmith's and the students can fasten them 
to the posts. About all the expense is the cost of the ball. 
The same ball used for volley ball, or even association foot 
ball, may be used for this game. Basket ball is suitable for 
girls as well as boys, and is very fine exercise, if not played 
too strenuously. Further directions are not necessary here, 
as a rule book should be obtained of an athletic dealer. 

Croquet is one of the best games for the home yard, 
and is not out of place on the school grounds. In fact, it 
is an excellent game for school children, if a part of the 
yard can be set aside during the fall and spring for that 
purpose. A set with directions for playing can be obtained 
for about one dollar and a half. 

Horseshoes, or quoits, is a very old fashioned game, but 
one that is always interesting. Children and grey haired 
grandfathers enjoy it alike. Two wooden pegs, or railroad 
"spikes," if they can be obtained, are set about thirty-five 



52 RURAL EDUCATION 

feet apart, so that they project out of the ground about five 
or six inches. Either two or four persons may play. If 
four play, two opponents remain at each stake. If only 
two play, it is necessary for them to walk to the other peg 
each time after pitching the quoits. The game is played 
with oval disks, or quoits, sometimes, but more often with 
ordinary horseshoes. When the shoes are used, the corks 
should be reasonably sharp. Each player pitches two 
shoes, the side winning the last "throw" pitching first. 
The object is to pitch the shoes as near to the stake as 
possible. The player having his horseshoes nearest the 
peg wins the "throw," and scores two points, if both shoes 
are nearer than his opponent's, but only one point, if only 
one shoe is closer. When a shoe is thrown so that it rests 
against the peg, it scores two points for the player, unless 
it is knocked down by another player. A shoe thrown over 
the peg counts a "ringer" and scores three points, unless 
dislodged by a succeeding shoe. The player, or side, if 
four are playing, that first scores eleven points wins the 
game. Six games constitute a "series," or set, as in tennis. 

Enough games suitable for older children have been 
given from which to make selection. Interest may be fur- 
ther stimulated in the work of the playground by holding 
interscholastic athletic contests as frequently as may be 
deemed advisable. Such contests would not be difficult to 
arrange between nearby schools, and should be conducive 
to closer co-operation among the schools, and very valuable 
from a social standpoint. 

Another form of recreation which should be the birth- 
right of every boy and girl is camping. How many boys 
and girls ever get a real vacation? I fear altogether too 
few. The joys of a week or two in camp — the hunting, 
fishing, bathing, or strolling in the woods in search of flowers, 



PLAY AND SCHOOL PLAYGROUND 53 

are not soon to be forgotten. It may be a sacrifice to let 
the children go during the busy time on the farm or in the 
home, but it is worth while. It is a part of an education 
that should not be neglected. The time spent on a vaca- 
tion of this sort will be repaid a hundred fold in renewed 
physical and mental vigor. The work of the Boy Scouts 
and Camp Fire Girls in this respect is worthy of the support 
of all parents and teachers. 

It would not be proper to close a chapter on play with- 
out suggesting something suitable for the activities of 
the younger children on the playground. The following 
"games that every child should know" taken from the 
standard authors on the subject of play may be helpful: 
Little Children, Cat and Mouse, Jacob and Rachel, Slap 
Jack, Whip Tag, Hide and Seek, Puss in the Corner, The 
Miller, Farmer in the Dell, Bean Bag, London Bridge, The 
Needle's Eye, One Old Cat, Witch in the Jar, Tag, Lame 
Goose, Run Sheep Run and Follow the Leader. 

For those a little older this list is appropriate: School 
Master, Blind Man's Buff, Trades, Drop the Handkerchief, 
Railroad Game, Duck-on-the-Rock, Thumbs Up, Three 
Deep, Button Button, Last Couple Out, Bull in the Ring, 
Leap Frog, Fox and Geese, Pom Pom Pull Away, Prisoner's 
Base, Captain Ball, Dodge Ball, Catch Ball and Battle 
Ball. The last four require a basket ball or volley ball. 

Singing games have a peculiar fascination for many 
children. A few are here suggested: London Bridge, 
Green Grass, The Farmer in the Dell, In and Out the Win- 
dow, The Shoemaker, I Put My Right Hand In, and The 
Miller. 

Space will not permit a discussion of these games, but 
many of them will be found in " Education by Plays and 
Games" already referred to. 



CHAPTER V 
TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS 

The physician, before he can practise medicine must 
spend four years in high school, from two to four years 
in a general college course and from two to four years more 
in technical training for his profession. This makes an 
average of about ten years above the grades in special 
preparation, in addition to which he must pass an examina- 
tion by the state medical board. Likewise, the attorney 
must spend several years in special training and pass the 
state board examination before he can be admitted to the 
bar. The same conditions obtain for many other profes- 
sions. Until recently, however, the teacher could practice 
upon the mental activities of the rising generation, with 
altogether too little academic training, and no professional 
preparation. Even yet we hear expressions similar to this: 
"She surely knows enough to teach a country school." 
The average layman thinks the person who holds a college 
diploma should be capable of teaching any subject anywhere. 

The evolution of professional training for teachers from 
the itinerant schoolmaster "boarding 'round" to the highly 
trained specialists of to-day is very interesting, but this 
change has not until recently affected the country schools. 
Not many years ago the county superintendent was the sole 
judge as to the qualifications of his teachers. And he still 
is in some states. He formulated the questions, gave the 
examinations, and marked the papers. If the candidate 
did not pass, the county superintendent had the power to 
issue a permit. While undoubtedly most officials were 
entirely conscientious in the discharge of their duties, the 
system was conducive to favoritism and sometimes even 

54 



TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS 55 

dishonesty. At its best it was inefficient. Uniform exam- 
inations and state supervision was the next step. Then a 
permit by the county superintendent was restricted to one 
term. In other ways the standards have gradually been 
raised until many states now require some professional 
training in addition to the academic work. In Minnesota 
every teacher is now required to have at least one year 
of professional training for a first grade certificate. 

City trained girls do not usually make good country 
schoolteachers, and this is perfectly natural. The environ- 
ment of the country is so different from that of the city or 
even of the village. Furthermore, the entire course of 
study for the rural school is gradually but surely being 
revised to meet the needs of the community it serves. These 
needs are vastly different from those of the city. The 
United States Commissioner of Education, Dr. Claxton, in 
a recent address before a body of teachers, said, "All edu- 
cation to be educational and cultural must be vocational." 
This statement, applied to the rural schools, means that 
such subjects as agriculture and home economics must 
receive direct attention, and that the entire course must be 
industrialized. This does not necessarily mean that the 
teacher must do more work than she has been doing. She 
will teach the same number of hours, but it does mean that 
the education and training of the rural teachers must be 
vastly different from what it has been in the past. 

The rural teacher of the future must not only be as well 
trained as the city teacher, but better. The city school 
system has its superintendent, supervisors, principals and 
special teachers to assist the teacher, not to mention en- 
gineers and janitors. The country teacher must be all of 
these officials and workmen combined. A knowledge of 
country life is the first requisite for the country teacher. 



56 RURAL EDUCATION 

This knowledge should be gained at first hand. In other 
words, the teacher of the country should come from the 
country. To her natural qualifications, however, must be 
added academic, industrial and professional training. 

The academic training should be broad and deep. "Sur- 
face" or "shallow" students are not the kind to make teach- 
ing their profession. Thoroughness must be the watch 
word. It is not sufficient to know the common branches 
well when they are taken in the upper grades. These sub- 
jects should all be reviewed in the high school with a special 
view to teaching them. Many teachers do not get good 
results in spelling, writing, music and drawing, because 
they, themselves, are not well grounded in them. These, 
as well as geography, arithmetic, history, civics, grammar, 
composition, and a general course in English classics, 
should be part of the high school academic work for teachers. 
It is probably not necessary to state that, in the future, no 
person should be allowed to teach in the rural schools who 
has not at least a full high school education. The special 
professional training should follow the high school course. 
Certificates should be issued only on diplomas from rec- 
ognized professional courses, discontinuing the examination 
plan. Topics that should be required are elementary alge- 
bra, English classics, and composition during the four-year 
course, physiology and hygiene, general history, zoology, 
and botany, physics and chemistry. The sciences should 
all be greatly revised and industrialized. A half year each 
of physics and chemistry could be made much more prac- 
tical than the present courses of one year. Foreign lan- 
guages are cultural, but not essential. Culture is also 
found in manual training and agriculture and these subjects 
are of more immediate and practical value. Geometry is 
not necessarj'. Economics should be encouraged. 



TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS 57 

Industrial work is becoming more and more necessary 
to meet the demands. A brief course in weaving and 
basketry is no longer sufficient. Every prospective teacher 
should have at least a full year high school credit in domestic 
science, one in domestic art, and one in general agriculture. 
The domestic science must be broader than a course in 
plain cooking. Serving, laundering, home sanitation, nutri- 
tion, household management, including purchasing of ma- 
terials and keeping accounts,- are essentials. Every girl 
should learn to do good, plain sewing, not only hand, but 
machine work. One preparing to teach must know these 
things so well that one can use what is practicable for the 
rural school. While there may be some difference of opinion 
regarding how much of this should be taught, there is no 
doubt that darning, patching, and other very useful plain 
needle work can be done as well in a country school as in 
the grades of a village school, provided the teachers are 
equally well trained. Also the teacher who is independent 
and capable enough to make her own garments, will be more 
respected in the community than the one who cannot. 
The agricultural work should include farm crops and the 
elements of animal husbandry, especially dairying. 

A collection of weeds and weed seeds should be made 
and their eradication understood. The common grains and 
grasses, crop rotation, and farm accounts are topics to be 
carefully studied. The teacher should also acquire enough 
knowledge and skill in manual training to be able to direct 
the boys in simple exercises such as those suggested in this 
book. Drawings are not hard to read and interpret, if a 
little time is devoted to them. Most teachers find a fas- 
cination in doing this kind of industrial work 

The professional training will probably more largely 
determine the success of the teacher than either the aca- 



58 RURAL EDUCATION 

demic or industrial. As already shown, it is absolutely 
essential. The standards should be gradually raised until 
at least one year of professional training should be given, 
offered only after graduation from high school. The work 
should cover practical child study, rural economics, methods 
in all the common branches, including the industrial sub- 
jects, school organization and management and practice 
teaching. It is sometimes stated that teachers will get more 
from observation than from actual teaching. This is a 
serious mistake. A little observation of the work of a 
strong teacher will assist a prospective one who may happen 
to know just what she is looking for. She will know this 
only by teaching experience. Learn to teach by teaching 
may sound much like learning to read by reading, but both 
are necessary to get results. I should have a student begin 
to teach the first day and continue at least one hour a day 
throughout the entire year. Student teaching is discussed 
more at length under the training department in high 
schools. Just where the professional training ought to be 
given is still an open question. The colleges of education, 
normal schools, county training schools, and normal depart- 
ments in high schools are all available for this purpose. 

The college of education in a university and the depart- 
ment of education in a college give opportunity to those who 
are fitting themselves for high school positions. Many -of 
the courses have been and some still are too abstract and 
theoretical. A course in general psychology is perhaps a 
good foundation for teaching, but it is to be regarded as 
academic rather than professional. Practical child study 
learned at first hand in the classroom, will be of much more 
direct value to the teacher. Methods taught by teachers 
with long experiences in the high schools rather than by col- 
lege professors; better knowledge of the high school subjects 



TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS 59 

to be taught after leaving college; a practical course m school 
organization, law, and management, and a little more com- 
mon sense pedagogy are some of the urgent needs at present. 
Superintendents are likely to complain more about the me- 
chanics of the schoolroom than any other one thing. Teach- 
ers make serious mistakes in the use of the school register, 
reports, filling out various necessary forms and sometimes 
in exceeding their authority with students. Vague notions 
of what constitutes good order and discipline in the school- 
room often result in failure before the end of the year. 
When questioned about these things the blame is nearly 
always laid on the course preparing them for teaching. "We 
never had anything like that in college" is a familiar state- 
ment to every superintendent. Teachers are influenced 
directly by the way they have been taught, and perhaps 
unconsciously imitate those who have influenced them most. 
Unfortunately this is not always conducive to good teaching. 
The great lecturers are not always good classroom instruc- 
tors. A department of education needs both. From this 
criticism it might appear that these institutions are not 
worthy. Such an inference is incorrect. They do, however, 
need the same practical readjustment that is taking place 
in many of the other educational units, and happily many of 
those in charge are devising means for providing the neces- 
sary practical experience. Visits from representatives of 
colleges to secondary schools and questionaires sent to school 
officials show that the authorities are abreast of the times. 
It may not be evident just what connection the college of 
education has with the preparation of rural school teachers. 
Unfortunately, but little at present. That it is destined to 
become more and more a factor in rural training, however, 
cannot be questioned. Consolidated schools and better 
smaller schools will demand teachers of high scholarship. 



60 RURAL EDUCATION 

The agricultural colleges through their regular courses and 
summer sessions are meeting the need at present better than 
any other agency. That the professional side of this training 
needs strengthening cannot be denied. In Minnesota and 
other states a department of education in the college of agri- 
culture is materially assisting in supplying the demand for 
professionally trained industrial teachers. 




Figure 7. High school normal girl3 fitting themselves by actual field work. 

The Winona (Minnesota) State Normal has established 
a modern rural school, the teacher for which will be furnish- 
ed free of cost to the district, which will supply the building 
and all the equipment. The teacher is a member of the 
normal school faculty, and it is her mission to work out the 
very best rural school that can be made. Prospective 
teachers go there regularly to receive instruction. 

The state normal schools have been the most effective 
agencies in supplying teachers. That they have failed to 
develop the country schools is not the fault of these insti- 
tutions. The demand for grade teachers in cities and vil- 
lages, due largely to a short tenure of office, has prevented 
rural schools from getting much direct benefit from the 



TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS 61 

normal schools. That this demand will not only continue, 
but increase, is to be expected. It is, therefore, logical to 
think that the normal schools be regarded the proper unit 
of the public school system to supply teachers for the graded 
schools. It is task enough. They specialize in this one 
line of work, admitting only high school graduates to their 
courses. Attendance at these schools usually necessitates 
being at a long distance from home, and should not be neces- 
sary for teachers of one-room rural schools. Those who qual- 
ify for consolidated schools could attend the special courses 
in agricultural colleges, as suggested above. Unnecessary 
duplication of equipment in different parts of the state 
would be avoided and all would benefit by the arrangement. 

County training schools have been tried in both Wisconsin 
and Michigan and most of them have been successful. The 
chief objection to them would seem to be the extra expense 
of duplication of equipment without the desirable feature 
of keeping students in their home communities. One who 
has to go fifteen or twenty miles away, even though it may 
be in his own county, may as well go farther and attend one 
of the larger schools with better facilities. It can readily 
be seen that in the average country town there is no demand 
for a county school to teach academic work. This is amply 
offered in the local high school, and when given in the county 
institutions, it is not only an added expense, but draws from 
the enrollment of the high schools. If only professional 
work is to be offered in these schools, why not combine 
them with the high schools, making a special department 
for rural school training? This is precisely the question 
that was discussed and considered at length in Minnesota 
a few years ago, with the result that high school training 
departments were established. 

The "Minnesota Plan" does away with the parallel 



62 RURAL EDUCATION 

system and eliminates the objections to the county training 
schools. The regular students of the high school who intend 
to teach can receive their training in the home institution 
and usually teach somewhere in the home community. 
This plan is both convenient and fitting. The legislature 
appropriated $750 aid to each high school offering a training 
course. Later this amount was raised to $1,000, and a 
commission has recently recommended that it be further 
increased to $2,500 annually and a two-year course offered 
instead of one year as at present. Students who enter this 
department are required by the state department to have 
at least one year of high school work. Many schools allow 
only high school seniors to take the course, and the standards 
are being raised, so that eventually only high school gradu- 
ates may be admitted. A teacher of professional training 
and unusually successful experience in rural and other schools 
is placed in charge of the department. About half of the 
high schools in the state now have these departments, and 
it is possible for the others to secure them. A state inspec- 
tor of training departments has been recently appointed. 

High school training departments should be able to 
meet the needs of small rural schools of one and two teachers 
better than any of the other institutions named. The rea- 
sons for this are obvious in view of the discussion given 
above. The academic work should be done in the regular 
high school courses. This training should ultimately be 
made a two-year course, one year consisting of reviews and 
methods of the common branches, including industrial work; 
and the other, professional work and practice teaching. 
After several years of experience with training departments 
in two schools, with four different supervisors of these de- 
partments, I am firmly convinced that the teaching the 
students do is the most valuable part of the course. Various 



TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS 63 

plans for conducting the practice teaching have been tried 
in this state. Some departments have insisted that the 
"cadets" should observe the work of the regular teachers 
for a term or a semester before attempting to teach. Others 
have had them begin with small groups, after a few weeks 
of observation. Still others have had the students observe 
and teach in nearby rural schools, substituting for the 
regular teacher, as the occasion required. We have tried 
all of these plans. One year the training department had 
entire charge of our sixth grade, following a provision made 
by the former superintendent the year before. This was 
so successful, thanks to an energetic training supervisor, 
that not a complaint was heard from any of the parents. 
While practice teaching conducted in the ways suggested 
is much better than none, it is not the kind of training the 
prospective rural teacher needs. Observation in a grade 
of a village school cannot be directly applied to teaching 
except in a village school. It is true, that the general 
principles are the same, but the application, and more 
particularly the organization is very different. Young 
teachers are imitative, usually too much so, and the fact 
is that they do not adapt their grade methods to the rural 
school that must be conducted very differently. The plan 
of using a nearby rural school for practice teaching has been 
tried with success by some. While it affords an excellent 
means of supplementing the regular teaching, I do not be- 
lieve it is practicable to attempt to conduct all of the teach- 
ing in this way. There are too many obstacles to interfere 
in the average community. Not more than one or two 
cadets could observe and teach in such a school in any one 
day. The others must still be provided for in some other 
way, or not teach until their turn came again. A means 
of transportation must be provided regularly and this would 



64 



RURAL EDUCATION 



necessitate a considerable expenditure during the year. 
The supervisor of the department could not observe the 
teaching, unless the other members of the class were left 
alone. These are a few of the objections to making a 
regular rural school the sole means of practice teaching. 
The most serious objection at the present time, moreover, 
is the inability to secure for these schools teachers who are 
competent to act as critics and give practical help to begin- 
ners, as must be done, if the work is to be effective. 

The ungraded room is probably not a cure for all the 
pedagogical ills of training departments, but, in my experi- 
ence, it has been by far the most practical means of con- 
ducting practice teaching. We have tried this in numerous 
ways. At first by taking students from several of the 





1 

: 


"nv 

•'9 ■ r 
■ : m 'MM- ] 




■ ^Plr' l 


"' " - : ''&i'''':: ., 


^' J< 



Figure 8. The "ungraded room," or rural school oi a teachers' training depart- 
ment. The student teacher is using the "Division Plan" of organizing the 
school and the two classes of the Second Division arithmetic are reciting at the 
game time. See Chapter VIII. 



TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS 65 

grades and combining them in certain subjects in which 
they were weak. Then we tried half day sessions with the 
children from each of the grades. Finally, the ungraded 
room was kept running all day long, but the students were 
in this room only a month, or some other convenient unit. 
There are two good reasons why these methods were not 
successful. First, the ungraded room must not be used as 
a "catch-all" for backward students. To make it such is 
an injustice to pupils and student teacher alike. Second, 
as long as the responsibility is divided between the ungraded 
room and the grade teachers, no one is responsible. The 
regular teacher blames the student teacher if the child is 
behind grade, and the student teacher cannot follow an 
ungraded plan and have the child do exactly the same work 
as the others of his grade at the same time. In order to 
keep him up to grade she must get the lesson from the 
regular teacher each day and conduct a little graded school 
■ — the precise thing she should not do to prepare her to teach 
in a country school. 

The remedy, then, is to conduct the ungraded room 
independently of the grades. Since we have been follow- 
ing this plan we have had no serious objections to meet. 
Parents have asked to have their children put into this 
room, but no requests have been made to have pupils taken 
out and put into the grades. When the room was organized, 
it was to take the place of the sixth grade referred to above, 
which did not give suitable training for rural schools. The 
children were selected from the other rooms of the schools, 
rather at random, only two things being considered. One 
was to have a representative room, that is, not all backward 
students nor all particularly bright ones, — just an average 
room. The other was that at least half must be country stu- 
dents actually living on farms. In this way two dozen chil- 

5— 



66 RURAL EDUCATION 

dren were chosen from the first six grades of the school, thus 
making about an average rural school. These children not 
only remained in the ungraded room the entire year, but came 
back to this room the next year, excepting those who were 
promoted to the Junior High School. A new class of begin- 
ners was taken into the room at the first of the second year. 

This plan is still in successful operation. The supervisor 
of the training department is responsible for the ungraded 
room. In fact, it is part of her department, with a door 
between the student teacher's room and the ungraded room. 
The cadets start to observe and teach in this room from the 
first day. They keep the daily register, prepare the lesson 
plans and make out the report cards the same as other 
teachers in the building. The room is not run as a graded 
school, but the course of study and the daily program 
suggested in Chapters VII and VIII of this book are fol- 
lowed. The head of the department is made responsible 
for the supervision of playgrounds at recess, and the cadets 
assist the regular teachers in the games suggested in Chapter 
IV. The industrial courses suggested in this book are in 
operation including the booklets in language work and the 
hot lunch plan. An attempt is made to carry out the 
entire course of study as it is outlined for rural schools. 

The student teachers get at least an hour of teaching 
every day throughout the entire year. This is not all in 
the ungraded room. Groups from the regular grades are 
taken for lessons in reading, language, arithmetic and such 
subjects as can be well cared for in this manner. Some- 
times an entire division is taken from a crowded room, thus 
relieving the regular teachers. At the close of each day the 
student teachers meet for " criticisms" and a general dis- 
cussion of the work. 

State certificates are issued to those who complete the 



TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS 67 

course in the training department, based on their academic 
and professional work. These certificates are good in any 
rural school in Minnesota. The students from our depart- 
ment have been located each year before graduation, so 
strong has been the demand for teachers with professional 
training. Most of them have been employed in our own 
associated rural districts. It should be understood that 
the departments are not large, the number of students 
varying from eight to twenty in the state as a whole. 

The question of teachers' wages is a serious one. With 
the raising of the qualifications for teaching one sometimes 
wonders if it is worth while to make such preparations for 
the remuneration. Fortunately, increase of salary goes with 
the raising of standards and is likely to continue to do so. 
The average wages paid the graduates of the department 
mentioned above have been about fifty-five dollars a month 
the first year. This is better than the average grade teach- 
er's wages for the first year of service, and most of them 
have made longer preparation. While wages are still far 
below what they should be, it is well for teachers to remem- 
ber that the reason for the poor pay is, to a great extent, 
due to the fact that teaching is at best but a semi-profes- 
sion. A teacher usually gets all she earns the first year — 
often more. The second year she is worth more, but just 
then she quits teaching. It is said that the average service 
is but two years. If teaching could be made a real pro- 
fession, remuneration would be more adequate to the 
service rendered by those who made it a life work. Teach- 
ers of rural schools in Europe receive living wages, but we 
must adopt the European plan of employing men teachers 
for the country schools, and of having the same teacher in 
the community for ten, twenty-five or forty years, if we are 
to get the European wage scale. Our consolidated rural 



QS RURAL EDUCATION 

school will help this matter, undoubtedly, as it will tend to 
enhance the position of the teacher. 

Teachers' pensions are being agitated and granted. 
Some states have passed bills that are fairly satisfactory. 
The Minnesota legislature has just recently passed a bill 
allowing an annuity of $350 after twenty years of service, 
and $500 a year after twenty-five years. The funds are 
raised by a uniform levy among the teachers themselves, 
amounting to about $500 during the first twenty years and 
by a special state tax for that purpose. Such a pension 
law would seem equitable. It would, in a way, compen- 
sate those who spent the best part of their lives in teaching 
for the low salaries received during this service. No soldier 
on the battle field ever served his country any more effi- 
ciently than the faithful, conscientious teacher who spends 
twenty-five years of her life in this service, and none is 
more deserving of a pension than she. 

The teacher becomes automatically eligible to this re- 
tirement fund and must contribute annually a sum which 
increases from five to thirty dollars. In case of removal or 
death, half the amount paid is refunded. The last five years 
of service must have been in Minnesota. The act does not 
apply to cities of the first class or to the State University. 

The course of study used in our teachers' training depart- 
ment is here appended for those who may be interested in 
it. The student elects this course at the beginning of the 
tenth or sophomore year in high school. A three-year 
junior high school course is preparatory to the senior courses. 
In the junior course English is required for three years, a 
modern language is elective, general industrial work, agri- 
culture, manual training, domestic science, sewing, are 
required at least one year each, and civics, as well as all 
the common branches, receives proper attention. 



TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS 



CO 



TRAINING DEPARTMENT 


COURSE 




TENTH YEAR 




First Term 


Second Term 


Third Term 


English 


English 


English 


Ele. Algebra 


Ele. Algebra 


Ele. Algebra 


or 


or 


or 


Plane Geometry 


Plane Geometry 


Plane Geometry 


Domestic Science 


Domestic Science 


Domestic Science 


or 


or 


or 


Manual Training 


Manual Training 


Manual Training 


Zoology 


Zoology 
ELEVENTH YEAE 


Botany 
Agriculture 


English 


English 


English 


General History 


General History 


General History 


Chemistry 


Chemistry 


Food Study 


or 


or 


or 


Physics 


Physics 


Household Physics 


Sewing 


Sewing 
TWELFTH YEAR 


Sewing 
Agriculture 


English 


English 


Grammar 


Arithmetic 


Geography 


Music, Hygiene 


Agriculture, Sewing 


History 


School Management 


Manual Training 


Industrial Work 


Rural Sociology 


Civics 


Teaching 


Teaching 


Teaching 







CHAPTER VI 

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 

The character of the teacher's preparation will largely 
determine her success in the management of her school. In 
the last chapter there was given an outline of some of the 
requisites of a thorough training. Those who have not been 
fortunate enough to secure such training in school need not 
despair, if they will apply themselves. Every teacher 
should go to her school equipped with certain helps that are 
almost indispensable. There should be a few homemade 
charts for the first-year students in reading. Chart-board 
about twenty-two by twenty-eight can be easily obtained. 
Pictures from magazines, and a printing press will complete 
the necessaries for chart-making. If it is known what book 
will be used in the beginning class, the charts should be 
based upon the words found in the first few pages. Some 
special devices that can be used as seat work in' language and 
arithmetic should also be prepared, as well as phonics charts 
and flash cards for word drills. The making of these simple 
helps will not require much time, and the teacher will enjoy 
the satisfaction of being prepared for her work from the 
first day. I have seen young teachers lose control of the 
room the first week, because they had not prepared and 
planned the work and could not keep the students inter- 
ested. Remember that interest is the cure for the majority 
of the ills of school life. With it, discipline takes care of 
itself; let the students lose interest, and trouble begins. A 
prominent educator walked into our class in school manage- 
ment one day, and, without a comment, wrote this sentence 
on the board: " Attitude is the greatest factor in educa- 
tion." True. The attitude of the teacher and of the 

70 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 71 

students toward their work will largely determine the char- 
acter of the results. 

A teacher should visit her school long enough before the 
opening of the term to have her recommendations adopted. 
The floor and walls should be cleaned as well as the windows 
and the schoolroom thoroughly disinfected. The room 
should be made as attractive as possible, as the environment 
will directly affect the teacher's work as well as that of the 
students. The outhouses should be inspected and carefully 
cleaned and disinfected. 

The school register, records, and course of study should 
be obtained from the clerk of the district and carefully 
studied before the opening of school. A school census is 
now required in many states. This is taken by some one 
authorized by the board, and a copy is given to the teacher. 
She is then able to determine just who should be in school 
when the term opens. The laws are usually strict regarding 
attendance at school, and it is the duty of the teacher to 
report any children under school age who may be absent. 
In Minnesota the law requires every boy and girl under six- 
teen years of age to attend school every day there is school 
in the district, unless legally excused by the school board. 
A child under fourteen years of age cannot legally get a per- 
mit to remain away from school without a physician's certifi- 
cate that his health would be impaired if he remained in 
school. Blanks should be provided on which to report to 
the county superintendent, as well as to the clerk of the 
board, any violations of the attendance laws of the state. 

A suitable boarding place must be obtained for which 
it is best to arrange personally before the opening of school. 
If former teachers have been sensible, there will be little 
difficulty. Country-bred' teachers usually have no trouble 
in finding a boarding place, nor in holding one. The 



72 RURAL EDUCATION 

city girls and young men spoil things for the teachers 
that follow. 

The first day of school will have no terrors for the young 
teacher who has carried out the suggestions given above. 
She is prepared for her work and should feel confident of 
success. She should have a working program of the recita- 
tions and study periods on the board for the guidance of 
herself as well as of the pupils. Either a temporary or 
permanent program is necessary from the first day on. 
If the records have been studied, the teacher will know 
just what classes will have to be organized. Classification 
must be made quickly and lessons assigned. A business-like 
teacher will command the respect of the pupils from the 
start. The teacher who can secure the confidence and co- 
operation of her students the first day will very likely hold 
both throughout the year. 

The environment of pupils has much to do with their 
ability to work in the schoolroom. The windows should 
not only be well arranged, so that the light is good, but 
the teacher must see that the shades are regulated to admit 
light to the best advantage. The careful teacher will not 
forget to roll the shades on dark days, nor to draw them 
when the direct rays of the sun are in the eyes of the pupils. 

The heating plant needs careful study and attention. 
The dampers must be kept well regulated, so that plenty of 
fresh air may be obtained. Use the lime water test and 
make sure that the air is reasonably pure. In cold weather 
the dampers should all be kept closed until after the fire is 
well started. The room will be heated more quickly in this 
manner and fuel will be saved. It goes without saying 
that the room should be warm and comfortable before the 
students arrive in the morning. The district should employ 
a janitor, but, if the teacher contracts to do the janitor work, 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 73 

she must be present early enough to see to it. The school- 
room should contain desks of different sizes, and the teacher 
must use good judgment in seating the children. A suit- 
able desk of such height that the feet of the child rest 
firmly on the floor and do not dangle is necessary to health 
and comfort. The desks ought to be arranged so that the 
light will come from the left, or, if the windows are not 
unilateral, from the left and rear. Of course these advan- 
tages are not possible in the old "box car" type of building 
where there are windows on both sides of the schoolhouse. 

The students should be encouraged to bring flowers in 
the spring and fall. If the building is sufficiently warm, a 
few plants can be kept all winter. An aquarium is always 
interesting to boys and girls and is easily made and stocked. 
A few tadpoles, crayfish, minnows, snails, clams, etc., will 
be all that is necessary. By placing a few water plants in 
the sand the aquarium may be made self-supporting. A 
small reading table with magazines brought from the homes 
will not be abused in the right kind of schoolroom. A 
small stove and outfit of cooking utensils for hot lunches 
during the cold weather may be neatly arranged in one 
corner. Exhibits, homemade, and those that can be ob- 
tained from firms desiring to advertise, but such as will be 
useful without marring the appearance of the room, may be 
conveniently arranged. 

But few rules should be made and they ought not to be 
given until needed. Do not make the serious mistake of 
giving out so many rules the first day that the unruly boys 
will have an opportunity to break several of them before 
night. Observe your room as you teach and know every- 
thing that is going on. It is the teacher who forgets every- 
thing else while she is conducting a class who invites trouble 
in discipline. The students must know from the first day 



74 RURAL EDUCATION 

that you are master of the situation. A young teacher 
once took charge of a school that was noted for being partic- 
ularly unruly. In fact the previous teacher had been 
forced by the big boys to leave. The first day the new- 
teacher said nothing whatever about rules nor was any ref- 
erence made to the fate of the other teacher. He was busy 
"sizing up" the room, and the sizing up process was mutual. 
The second morning the teacher arose and said, "Yesterday 
you managed the school and I observed; beginning with 
to-day, I will run it." The students were apparently famil- 
iar enough with grammar to know that the "will" was used 
advisedly, and there was not the slightest inclination to 
repeat what they had clone. Do not talk about what you 
are going to do — act when occasion requires. 

Punishment in the schoolroom is as necessary at times 
as it is in the home. It is a hard subject about which to 
give advice. Each teacher must work out the problem for 
herself. Of course a teacher will not resort to corporal 
punishment except as a last resort, and then she will use 
common sense. It is necessary to make this statement, 
because some teachers appear to lose control of themselves, 
using unnatural modes of punishment, which are never 
conducive to any good. 

The assignment of lessons is an art that every teacher 
ought to practice. We sometimes fail to realize how much 
time is wasted on account of indefinite directions and assign- 
ments. Older students should be required to keep small 
notebooks containing the assignments of the lessons. The 
teacher who carefully presents the new ideas of a lesson in 
advance seldom has to take subsequent time that should 
be used by the pupils in the recitation. Some teachers 
merely hear the recitation; others direct and electrify it. 
We sometimes learn the principles of pedagogy and then 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 75 

fail utterly to apply them. Do we not too often assign so 
many pages from the book rather than a lesson that applies 
to pedagogic principles? We learn to "proceed from the 
known to the unknown," and then sometimes assign a 
lesson so foreign to anything that has been learned, that the 
students flounder hopelessly. About nine tenths of the 
subject matter taught is old and one tenth new. The new 
must be developed directly from the old. 

Many students do not know how to study, and waste 
time on account of inability to apply themselves to their 
work. It is not wholly the amount of time a student spends 
on his lessons that counts, but the intensity of study. That 
interest that will go home with a student often prevents 
frivolous diversion and leads to further study and better 
preparation of lessons. The subject of home tasks has been 
discussed in some of the leading magazines recently. There 
would seem to be no good reason why a certain amount of 
outside work might not be required. There is not always 
time in school to get all the advanced work thoroughly. 
On the other hand, too much home work has often been 
expected. Children of the primary and intermediate divi- 
sions should complete their work in school. 

Examinations should be given in the advanced classes 
once a month or once in six weeks, depending upon how 
often the report cards are sent out. An occasional written 
lesson, or test, may be given in the intermediate work, but 
no examinations ought to be held in the first three years. 
When examinations are required, they should mean some- 
thing. The practice of giving written lessons with no 
thought of carefully reading and correcting the papers 
cannot be too strongly condemned. In computing the 
marks for report cards and records it is customary to have 
the regular daily work for the month count as two thirds 



76 RURAL EDUCATION 

and the examination as one third of the final mark. Letters 
are more commonly used than figures for marking, and are 
undoubtedly better. A scale sometimes used is F, P, P+, 
and P++, in which F means fail, P, pass, P+, passed with 
credit, P++ passed with honor. In figures they would 
express marks ranging below 75% for F., 75% to 80% for 
P, 80% to 90% for P+, and anything above 90% for P++. 

Finally, the teacher should so manage her school that 
the students will like to be there. School can be made so 
attractive and interesting that students will go there rather 
than stay away. 

Do just a little more than is expected of you. Master 
the course of study you are to use; have a program and 
follow it; and make your school a business establishment of 
which you are the manager. Pleasure and success will 
then follow for all who are interested in the school. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE COURSE OF STUDY 

For generations the three R's have been regarded as 
the backbone of elementary education. They need emphasis 
as much to-day as ever. But civilization has become so 
complex even in the country that something more than 
these is now necessary for the fundamentals of education. 

The pioneer farmer broke up his land with oxen, sowed 
his grain by hand, and harvested it with a cradle. He built 
his log house and plastered the cracks with mud. The open 
fire place with its logs constituted the heating plant. The 
holes here and there through the roof and the cracks from 
which the dried mud had fallen made ventilation unneces- 
sary. The meals were cooked in a few simple utensils hung 
over the fire place, and housekeeping was primitive. This 
was, indeed, the simple life. It was not an easy life, for, 
literally, the sweat of the face earned the daily bread, but 
the mental energy of modern rural life was not required. 

Country life has changed. We sometimes hear that the 
good old days were better than the present, but probably 
few would return to them if the opportunity presented itself. 
But the pioneer civilization of half a century ago has gone 
never to return. The farmer can no longer get a quarter 
or half section of land for the asking. The same land that 
cost but a few dollars in the early days will now sell for 
thousands, much of it being worth more than one hundred 
dollars an acre. With this change in land values comes the 
necessity for more capital. The factors of production are 
land, labor, and capital, and the amount of mental energy 
might be said to vary directly as the amount of capital used. 
That is, the more money needed to carry on the business, 

77 



78 RURAL EDUCATION 

the more head work is necessary to make it successful. We 
hear much of the education of the hand in these days, and 
rightly so, but it is often forgotten that there must be the 
education of the head to direct the hand in its more complex 
work. It took some head work to direct the hand in the 
use of the cradle and flail in primitive harvesting and thresh- 
ing, but it takes more to direct these same hands to operate 
a modern harvester and threshing machine. 

Modern farming is a complicated business. In scope it 
is similar to a department store. In such a store the general 
manager must see that each department shows a profit at 
the end of the year, if that department is to be continued. 
The same business principles must be applied to the farm, 
if it is to be successful. The farmer must know that diversi- 
fied farming is necessary to keep up the fertility of the soil. 
The soils of the old countries have been tilled for centuries 
— some of them for thousands of years, and they are more 
fertile to-day than many of ours. We are just beginning to 
realize, as a nation, that grains and grasses and cattle and 
hogs do not grow from air and water, and that in the last 
analysis all are produced from the fertility in the soil. This 
fertility the American farmer has been slowly mining since 
the lands were first cultivated, and these farm mines will 
some day just as surely become exhausted, as the supplies 
of coal and iron or any other mine in the country, unless 
fertility is in some manner restored to them. The great 
resources locked up in the soil are as truly a fund in trust 
for future generations as are the school funds guarded by 
the state constitutions, and the individual who misuses the 
one is as morally guilty of wrong as the official who appro- 
priates the other. The present generation is entitled to a 
just share of both, but in getting this, it is not necessary to 
imperil future generations. 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 79 

Soil fertility can be maintained by proper crop rotation 
and by returning the crops to the soil instead of selling them. 
In the days of exclusive grain cropping the straw was burned 
after threshing and nothing whatever was returned to the 
soil. As stock was added, the crops were more and more 
fed on the farm and the barnyard manure returned to the 
soil. Many farmers, even yet, do not seem to realize that 
this is worth from two to three dollars a load, if properly 
applied to the land. Even commercial fertilizers are often 
profitable. On a recent trip to Florida I became very much 
interested in the methods of a successful farmer who told 
me that he was only a " Georgia cracker" and had moved 
to Florida some years before. He stated that, on account 
of his lack of education, he could not do as well as he other- 
wise might have done. Most of his soil was of the citrus 
variety, sandy and light colored. The uninitiated North- 
erner would say it was not worth paying taxes to keep it 
up. On this soil I found he was putting about thirty dollars' 
worth of commercial fertilizer annually, and from it receiv- 
ing an average of five hundred dollars a year in grape fruit 
and oranges. I found he had made a special study of 
fertilizers and that his soil needed a certain proportion of 
phosphate to certain other proportions of something else; 
also, that he applied one kind of fertilizer for a new growth 
of wood on his trees, and another kind for the fruit crop. He 
showed me where he had conducted an experiment with 
two acres of celery land on a low corner of his farm. This, 
by the way, was black soil rich in humus. On one acre he 
had put no fertilizer that year, but, because it was already 
rich from previous fertilization and proper care, he sold 
twelve hundred dollars' worth of celery. On another he 
put one hundred dollars' worth of fertilizer and marketed 
two thousand dollars' worth, a gain of eight hundred dollars 



SO RURAL EDUCATION 

for one hundred in fertilizer. The local bank was ready to 
verify these figures. This farmer was merely applying 
modern business principles to farming. 

The modern farmer, in order to conduct his business in 
a scientific manner, must know many things that his grand- 
father, in the same work, did not need to know. As shown 
above, he must understand the soil, and will need at least 
an elementary knowledge of soil physics and chemistry. 
He must know something about the capillary attraction of 
water and how to conserve the moisture in the soil; have a 
knowledge of drainage and how to sweeten soil that has 
become sour; understand the principles of crop rotation, 
and be able to apply the rotation that is best suited to 
his farm. Plant and animal life, germination of seeds, 
purity tests for grains and grasses, feeding rations for stock, 
animal diseases, principles of breeding, and a working knowl- 
edge of machinery and implements, are all subjects with 
which he must be familiar. A study of weeds and their 
eradication, and better methods of harvesting and caring 
for crops, will prevent the tremendous waste. 

The farmer must be somewhat of an economist. He 
must watch the markets and know when to sell; he must 
anticipate the needs of the future and plan his crops accord- 
ingly. For instance, if the wheat market is glutted, due to 
to an abnormal world production, and cattle and hogs are 
strong, due to a limited supply, he should plant more corn 
and less wheat. Production must now be considered from 
a world, and not a local, standpoint. A knowledge of 
accounts is necessary in order to know what departments 
are profitable and what are not. There are probably several 
"star boarders" among the herd. A record sheet and the 
Babcock tester will inform the farmer when to call the 
butcher. The corn crop may pay a bigger dividend than 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 81 

the wheat or oats. There is no accurate way of knowing 
this without a system of records. I have found that farmers 
do not keep accounts mainly for two reasons. They think 
a knowledge of bookkeeping is necessary and that they take 
too much time. In neither respect are they correct. Simple 
accounts sufficient to conduct all the business of the farm 
can be taught to children in the country school as part of 
the arithmetic work, and correlated with agricultural and in- 
dustrial work. A few ledger cards, or a single book, and a 
few printed forms are all that is necessary, so that the time 
element will become a negligible factor. An average of ten 
or fifteen minutes an evening will keep all the accounts 
necessary to make farming a real business, and this time 
will pay larger returns than any other part of the day. The 
business farmer must know the money markets as well as 
the crop and cattle markets. The farmer, just as any 
other business man, needs money at certain times. In 
some sections of the country he has been discriminated 
against and charged exorbitant rates of interest. This im- 
position has been partly, at least, his own fault for lack of 
business principles. 

The farmer's wife lives in a different environment from 
that of her grandmothers. Just as the conditions of the 
present have changed the methods of conducting her hus- 
band's business, so her work has become much more com- 
plex. Modern housekeeping is a highly specialized science. 
In these days when hired help is so scarce, it is all the more 
necessary that the housekeeper be efficient. In any event 
she must know in order to direct. A thorough knowledge 
of cooking necessitates something more than practice in 
that art, and homemaking is vastly more than cooking. 
That the fundamental principles of cooking may not have 
been learned in years of practice is often too evident by what 

6— 



82 RURAL EDUCATION 

those at the table are forced to eat. This ignorance of 
scientific food selection and preparation is probably not true 
of many homes from which our teachers come, but it is, 
nevertheless, so true of a great many homes in the common 
walks of life that the consequences of it are serious. The 
relation of proper food to the mental and physical efficiency 
of the individual has been clearly shown by scientists. 
Food study and the application of scientific principles to 
cookery should be part of every girl's education. 

Sanitation and its relation to disease should be thoroughly 
understood. Modern heating, lighting, and ventilation re- 
quire special intelligent attention. Carelessness and in- 
difference toward the little things of the home often greatly 
decrease the efficiency of the management. I often judge 
this efficiency by what I call the three cardinal points of 
good housekeeping — the condition of the washbasin, the 
singing tea kettle and the well regulated fire in the stove. 
The clean washbasin indicates a clean and sanitary home; 
the kettle of water ready for use at all times shows thought- 
fulness, and that time will not be wasted in that home; and, 
finally, the even fire will not waste fuel, nor go out during 
meal time. It shows system. With these three virtues, 
sanitation, thoughtfulness, and system, backed up by a 
scientific knowledge of homemaking, the farm home, or 
any other, will not be inefficient. The course of study in 
the schools has or should have a direct bearing on the things 
enumerated above. 

A well rounded education is necessary for both the 
farmer and the farmer's wife, if the suggestions discussed so 
far in this chapter are to be realized. I have merely at- 
tempted to show wherein the three R's are entirely inade- 
quate to meet present conditions. The course of study in 
the rural schools must be changed. If a knowledge of the 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 83 

things previously discussed is essential, where are the chil- 
dren to get this training, if not in the rural schools? There 
is no good reason why it cannot be given even in the one- 
room school, until association and consolidation of schools 
provide better facilities. It is true that the rural teacher 
must be especially trained for the new duties, as discussed 
in a previous chapter. That some communities are indiffer- 
ent toward a rejuvenated rural school only proves the state- 
ment already expressed, that, in many instances, farmers 
are not alive to their needs and opportunities. The rising 
generation does see these needs, as indicated by the desire 
to attend short courses, and in other ways to improve them- 
selves and their environment. 

The course of study for the modern rural school should, 
then, so present each subject that it may have a direct 
bearing on country life. The course must be different from 
that in the city schools. The argument that the country 
school of a generation ago was good enough for me and it 
is good enough for the country boys and girls of to-day, is 
not only inconsistent, it is positively silly. Show me the 
person who makes such statements in your community, and 
I will show you a "grouch" or a miser. Invariably the per- 
son who is opposed to better schools or to modernizing the 
course of study is afraid his taxes will be raised, or he wants 
to profit from the labor of a child which the law has to 
protect from its own selfish parent, or he is the chronic 
" kicker" of the district and is opposed to anybody or any- 
thing that stands for progress. Such a person is jealous of 
his children, if they get an education, and he is envious of 
his prosperous neighbor. We teachers should, therefore, 
not become discouraged when progress is not as rapid as we 
should like. Reforms are not made in a day. The American 
rural school is better now than ever before, but it will be 



84 RURAL EDUCATION 

much better. Public opinion must, however, pave the way. 
The subjects taught in country schools should be about 
the same as those for city schools, the difference being in 
the way they are taught. They are reading, English classics 
and composition, spelling, writing, music, drawing, geog- 
raphy, history, arithmetic, civics, or citizenship, agricul- 
ture, industrial work, including the use of tools and simple 
bench work for the boys, and plain sewing for the girls, and 
a study of foods and nutrition in connection with the serv- 
ing of hot lunches at noon. These subjects are all discussed 
quite fully in the chapters that follow. We need to tear 
down some of the traditional barriers that stand in the way 
of the progress we should make in many of these subjects. 
Students stammer and stumble along in reading in the upper 
classes, when they can be taught to become independent 
and read anything in three or four years. Likewise children 
leave school without a working knowledge of arithmetic, 
mainly because they and their teachers have been flounder- 
ing around in a labyrinth of numbers without getting any- 
where. The seventy-two mental processes of arithmetic 
are purely mechanical and can and should be mastered dur- 
ing the drill age of the child in the intermediate years of 
school. The application of these to — to what? not to the 
exercises of the textbook, but to the problems of life, best 
expressed in schools through the industrial work, is the busi- 
ness of the last years in the elementary school. Accounts 
with actual records from home should be part of this work. 
Egg and milk statistics are always available for records. In 
short, there is little excuse for a person's leaving school 
without a knowledge of all that he will need in arithmetic, 
and it does not need seven or eight years for the acquisition. 
Children are taught to waste too much time in school. 
Eliminate the non-essentials and four or five years of arith- 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 85 

metic well taught should make the student proficient. Not 
one girl in twenty-five, for example, will ever have as much 
direct use for arithmetic as she will have for cooking and 
sewing, and yet when we attempt to apply this very subject 
to these things, some ignorant person sounds the alarm 
that fads are being taught in the schools. "O consistency, 
thou art a jewel!" The same might be said of the boys in 
relation to their manual training. 

The county superintendent, superintendent of a system 
of associated schools, or the principal of a consolidated 
school should formulate a uniform course of study for his 
particular unit. I do not believe a uniform course for the 
state is wise, except where it is merely suggestive, as the 
conditions may be very different. Agriculture does not 
need emphasis in a lumbering or mining region. I would 
not be misunderstood in this. I am anything but a fatalist, 
and do not believe every farmer's children should stay on 
the farm, nor that any other child should necessarilly follow 
the occupation of his father. Fortunately for society, there 
is no caste in America, but the fact remains that children 
are likely to follow the occupation of the parent, and, con- 
sequently, the schools should reflect predominantly the in- 
dustries of the community in which they are situated. 

Teachers' meetings should be called frequently by the 
person in charge of the rural schools to discuss the course 
of study. Teachers, as a rule, are not as familiar as they 
ought to be with what they should teach. Young teachers 
cannot be expected to be familiar enough with the needs of 
the community to formulate the course of study, but they 
should be held responsible for carrying it out to the best of 
their ability. If the public could only realize the time and 
energy that are wasted by teachers and students in many 
schools, because there is nothing definite to follow — no course 



86 RURAL EDUCATION 

of study, toleration would cease. Physical inefficiency is 
easily seen; mental inefficiency should be seen, but often is 
not. It is not the fault of the teacher, when results are not 
what they should be, if she has nothing definite in each sub- 
ject to follow. It is her fault, if she has a course and does 
not follow it. 

The various outlines for the subjects of the course of 
study given in this book are based upon the Three Divi- 
sion Plan now used in the associated rural schools under the 
supervision of the author. This plan provides for seven 
years' work. The eighth year work is not offered except 
in the semi-graded schools of two rooms, as the students 
enter the Junior High School department of the central 
school for that work. In any event, I doubt the advisibility 
of any teacher's attempting to teach eight "grades" in a 
country school. We would not think of doing so in town, 
even if the numbers were small enough. I know more than 
one town school where three teachers do not have as many 
students combined as one' teacher has in the country. 

The First Division work is for the stud. Q nts of the first 
three years. There should be three classes in this division, 
but in some subjects they recite together. The Second 
Division is the work of the fourth and fifth years. They 
should recite at the same time in every subject and be com- 
bined in some subjects. The Third Division constitutes the 
work of the sixth and seventh years. These two classes 
should be combined in every subject. A complete discus- 
sion of just how this plan works out is found in the next 
chapter on The Daily Program, and in the discussion of 
each of the academic and industrial subjects to be taught. 
I wish to say that every suggestion made in the program 
and the courses that follow are based on actual experience 
in the classroom and not on theory alone. The object of 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 87 

grouping and alternating is to save time and to get the 
maximum efficiency out of each student for the number of 
classes and subjects that have to be managed by one teacher. 
The author claims little originality for this organization, 
except as he has applied the principles of combination and 
alternation of classes to the three divisions as stated above. 
Wisconsin, Illinois, and, just recently, Massachusetts, have 
applied these principles in their rural schools. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE DAILY PROGRAM 

At the outset I wish to state that the Three Division 
Program given is the one suggested for a one-room rural 
school. It has been planned with the aid and advice of 
hundreds of teachers with whom the author, during the 
last few years, has had the pleasure of discussing school 
management and methods in summer schools, and it has 
been revised from time to time on account of valuable sug- 
gestions from those who have obseived it in the schoolroom. 

A careful study of the daily programs used by the teach- 
ers attending the summer session to which reference has 
been made revealed several interesting facts. In the first 
place practically all provided for a graded school, patterned 
after the school in the town where the teacher had attended. 
These grades ranged in number from three to ten, and in a 
few instances there were two classes in a grade. A sub- 
first grade, or chart class, corresponding to the kindergarten 
of the city schools, was found in many of the programs. 
The number of recitations daily ranged from fifteen to fifty- 
six, the former being for a school with only three grades. 
As far as we were able to determine, there was little or no 
attempt to make the program, or the course of study, uni- 
form in the counties represented by the teachers present. 
A few schools were attempting to do some so-called high 
school work. While the program with fifty-six recitations 
was an extreme case, the average number was nearly thirty 
a day. Allowing a minute for calling and dismissing each 
class, it is evident that the recitation period is cut down to 
so little time that the best teacher could not accomplish 
much. In the extreme case the time is less than five min- 

88 



THE DAILY PROGRAM 89 

utes for each recitation, and averages only ten minutes per 
recitation with the thirty. Every program providing for 
eight full grades, showed that the upper classes received more 
than their share of time, and that the lower classes suffered. 

The legitimate mechanics of the schoolroom will take 
considerable time during the day. Often more time than is 
necessary is used in requiring certain formal directions to 
be carried out. Classes should pass orderly but quickly to 
and from their recitations. The teacher requires some time 
to assign the lessons and present new work. Time is needed 
to give and inspect the seat work. Imagine a teacher who 
can do all this, and more that will present itself during the 
day, and have only an average of five minutes for the reci- 
tations. Practically all the time is wasted, as the teacher 
who had this program admitted, but she defended herself 
by stating that it was the program left in the schoolroom 
and she supposed she was to follow it. So much the worse; 
for the pupils had been kept in this high strung state of 
rapid-fire recitations for two years, at least. The school 
had a new teacher each year, and the wonder is that she 
lasted a year. That any program with thirty or more reci- 
tations a day, and only one teacher, is undesirable, will be 
admitted by all. In order to manage seven or eight grades, 
and keep the classes separate, it is necessary to have at 
least that many recitations. The question arises, which is 
better, to have thirty or forty single recitations with little 
time, or combine some of the classes, and have more time 
for each class? After experimenting with numerous classes 
in various ways, I am convinced that the longer recitation 
with combined classes is by far the better plan. 

Combination and alternation are the only methods by 
which we can gain more time for the recitation. By com- 
bination in this program we mean two things. First, cer- 



90 RURAL EDUCATION 

tain classes are combined to form a division, the classes of 
the division reciting at the same time, but not together. 
For example, the fourth and fifth-year students form the 
Second Division, and the two arithmetic classes of this 
division recite from nine forty to ten o'clock. They recite 
at the same time, but are doing different work. Second, 
certain other classes are combined and are doing the same 
work, as, for example, the classes of the Third Division. By 
alternation is meant that a certain subject, or part of a subject, 
is offered one year, and another subject, or the other part of 
a subject, alternates with it and is offered the next year. 
Geography alternates with history in the Third Division, 
and half of the books in reading for this division are read 
one year, and the other half the next year, the classes recit- 
ing together. 

The advantage of such a program over one with five and 
ten-minute recitations is evident. While there are some 
disadvantages in combining classes and alternating the 
work, they are minor compared with the results that can 
be obtained by an efficient teacher. The Three Division 
Program provides for twelve regular recitations daily, 
besides a ten-minute drill in phonics, a five-minute drill in 
mental arithmetic, and a general period of one hour. 

A study program should always be provided. It did not 
appear in most of the programs discussed in the summer 
schools, showing that a study program is not commonly 
arranged for the pupils. It follows, then, that in many 
cases the teacher does not know what the pupil is study- 
ing while she is conducting a recitation. He is left to him- 
self to "begin anywhere, and he will usually arrive no- 
where" at the end of the study period. The question as to 
whether a study period should precede or follow a recita- 
tion is often discussed. For the 'lower classes there is an 



THE DAILY PROGRAM 91 

advantage in having the study period after the recitation, 
as the seat work can then be based upon the work of the 
recitation. In the upper classes it would seem best to 
reverse the order, thus giving the student an opportunity 
to have any troublesome points cleared up during the reci- 
tation. It is not always possible to arrange the periods in 
this order, however. 

The Three Division Program shown on page 98, as 
already intimated, makes provision for seven years' work in 
the rural school. Those who object to only seven years 
should remember that most of the country pupils never 
complete that many grades, and those that do are the very 
ones that will be going to a village school, where they will 
get much more out of the eighth grade than they could 
possibly get in the rural school. Seven years' work can be 
better done than eight. That is, the student should be 
better prepared after seven years with twenty-minute reci- 
tations as provided in a division plan program, than with 
eight years of ten or fifteen-minute periods in a program 
where combinations are not made. There is no question 
that the elementary work now done in eight years in town 
or country can be done in six years and with greater 
efficiency under a properly rearranged plan. The success 
of such a program will depend entirely upon the teacher. 
I know of no plan that will show up the weakness of a 
teacher, as the Three Division Program. She must be sys- 
tematic and alert from nine o'clock to four. 

An analysis of the program will show a ten-minute 
period for opening exercises. These may be varied with 
Music, Current Events and talks on Hygiene. Primary 
reading is allowed twenty minutes. At first it is best to 
have the first year class by itself. Do not have a class 
below this, as it is a waste of time in a rural school. The 



92 RURAL EDUCATION 

second and third year pupils may recite at the same time 
from the start, and, after the first third of the year, the 
entire First Division reading may be conducted at once. 
These classes are usually small, averaging but three or four 
in a class. The "endless chain" method of conducting the 
primary reading is discussed in the next chapter for those 
who are not familiar with it. Reading has been arranged 
first in the primary work, because it is the most important 
subject for that division. Arithmetic is placed first in the 
other two divisions for the same reason. In the Second 
Division arithmetic, the two classes are called at the same 
time, but the work is different. While the new lesson is 
being presented to one class of this division, the other class 
may be working at the board under the direction of the 
teacher. They then exchange places and the other class 
receives instruction in the advanced lesson. In this way 
the teacher has each individual under her direction for 
twice the time she could give him, if the classes recited at 
different times. In the Third Division arithmetic, the 
classes take the same work, doing one half of the two-year 
course one year, and the other half the next year. Students 
of the sixth and seventh years should find no difficulty in 
working together in this manner. A ten-minute phonics 
period for the entire First Division is recommended. While 
this work will be review for the second and third year stu- 
dents, it will undoubtedly be needed. 

If the recess period is supervised as suggested in Chapter 
IV, the ten minutes should be conducive to more good than 
the ordinary fifteen-minute intermission. In case it is desir- 
able to take five minutes more, it would be wise to take it 
from the First Division Literature and Language period 
rather than from any other of the morning session. The 
oral arithmetic, though only of five minutes' duration, can 



THE DAILY PROGRAM 93 

be made a great help to the work in arithmetic, and should 
not be omitted. The teacher should have a copy of some 
good oral text for reference. The work in literature may be 
made very interesting, if stories are told or read by the 
teacher. A suggestive list of selections worth memorizing 
is given in Chapter X. Some of these should be available 
in the library. The reading of the second and third divi- 
sion follows in order, the two classes of each division reciting 
together. Since these are twenty-minute periods, several 
books can be read during the year. Ample time is given 
for studying reading to warrant good recitation work, if 
the students understand phonics and the use of the dic- 
tionary. Ten minutes daily will suffice for written spelling, 
if conducted as suggested under that subject in Chapter 
XL The written lesson is supplemented by a twenty- 
minute oral review once a week. The five minutes allowed 
in preparation for luncheon may be used whether the hot 
lunch is served or not. During the warm days of the fall 
and spring, the noon lunch would probably be enjoyed 
more on the lawn outside, if there is suitable shade and 
grass. Following this the teacher should spend the noon 
hour in games with the children. Chapter IV gives sug- 
gestions for this feature of school life. 

The First Division numbers are given while the children 
are fresh from the noon exercises. The second and third 
year students can be combined. Give few or no numbers 
in the first year, except as they may be combined with 
industrial work. Second Division geography is given twenty 
minutes, and classes recite together. In the Third Division 
the geography alternates with history, as discussed in 
Chapter XII, every other year or semester as seems most 
desirable. Students are given two periods in which to 
study this subject in the advanced division, and they should 



94 RURAL EDUCATION 

be able to do considerable supplementary reading. First 
Division reading follows for twenty minutes. The after- 
noon recess is also supervised. Better have no recess, 
unless the teacher can be on the playgrounds with the 
pupils at least often enough to supervise the play. The 
language of the Second Division includes memory selec- 
tions from literature and textbook work. 

The general period of one hour is coming more and 
more into common use. It affords an excellent means of 
providing for those subjects that cannot be offered every 
day. The plan in the Three Division Program provides 
for writing three times, group reading twice a week, oral 
spelling once a week, and Third Division language three 
times a week, with twenty-minute recitations for each 
subject. In addition to the recitation work in language, 
this division has a twenty-minute period daily for language 
work in industrial booklets. It will be noticed that two 
hours a week are allowed for the industrial work of the 
school. This is little enough time; but, if suitable materials 
are on hand, much progress can be made during the year. 
The First Division should remain for the writing period, 
but may be dismissed for the other periods, if desired. 

The study periods of this program should be carefully 
examined. The seat work of the First Division is very 
important. It should be based on reading in the morning, 
and on language during the session between recess and 
noon. Afternoon number work and industrial work should 
occupy the attention of those who remain in the seats. The 
second and third year students should have regular study 
periods for reading. Do not let the seat work degenerate 
into "busy work," as it always will, if there is no definite 
purpose in the mind of the teacher when she assigns the 
work. Chapter XV gives suggestions for the study periods. 



THE DAILY PROGRAM 95 

See that the older students learn how to study, so they may 
use these periods to the best advantage. 

It is suggested that the reader keep the page open to 
the Three Division Program while reading the above dis- 
cussion of it, as in this way it may be the more easily under- 
stood. The other programs are not discussed in detail, as 
they can be understood from the tabulations. The Four 
Division Program provides for two classes in each division, 
in a school with only one teacher. The others are for a two- 
room or semi-graded school with two teachers. As already 
stated, the author prefers the Three Division Program for 
the average rural school, as it is the most effective, if pro- 
perly managed. 



96 



RURAL EDUCATION 





THREE DIVISION PROGRAM 


Time 


First Division 
(1-3 yrs.) 


Second Division 

(4-5 yrs.) 


Third Division 

(6-7 yrs.) 


9:00- 9:10 


Opening Exercises (Songs, Current Events, Hygiene, etc.) 


9:10- 9:40 


Reading a b c 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


9:40-10:00 


Seat Work 


Arithmetic 


Language 


10:00-10:20 


Seat Work 


Reading 


Arithmetic 


10:20-10:30 


Phonics 


Reading 


Reading 


10:30-10:40 




Recess (Supervised) 




10:40-10:45 


Oral Arithmetic 


10:45-11:05 


Literature and 
Language 


Spelling 


Spelling 


11:05-11:25 


Seat Work 


Reading 


Reading 


11:25-11:45 


Seat Work 


General History 
Stories 


Reading 


11:45-11:55 


Written Spelling 


11:55-12:00 


Preparation for Luncheon 


12:00-12:20 


Luncheon 


12:20- 1:00 


Games (Supervised) 


1:00- 1:30 


Numbers 


Geography 


Geography or History 


1:30- 1:50 


Seat Work 


Geography 


Geography or History 


1:50- 2:10 


Seat Work 


Reading 


Geography or History 


2:10- 2:30 


Reading 


Language 


Language 


2:30- 2:40 


Recess (Supervised) 


2:40- 3.00 


Industrial Work 


Language 


Industrial Booklets 


3:00- 3:20 


Muscular Writi 


ng, Monday Tuesday at 


id Thursday 


3:20- 3:40 


Dismissed 


Group Reading, Mi 


mday and Tuesday 


3:20- 3:40 


Oral Spelling every Thursday 


3:40- 4:00 


Dismissed 


Industrial Work 


Language, Monday 
Tuesday, Thursday 



3:00- 4:00[ 



Industrial Work, Wednesday and Friday 



NOTE: The words given in Italics in these programs represent the recita- 
tions; the others are the study periods. See chapters on academic work for dis- 
cussion of each subject and how the classes are managed. 



THE DAILY PROGRAM 



97 



FOUR DIVISION PROGRAM 



>riT«o 1 First Division 1 Second Division 
lime (1-2 years) (3-4 years) 


Third Division 1 Fourth Division 
(5-6 years) (7-8 years) 


9:00- 9:10 


Opening Exercises (Songs, Current Events, Hygiene, etc.) 


9:10- 9:25 


Reading 


Reading 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


9:25- 9:40 


Reading 


Reading 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


9:40-10:00 


Seat Work 


Seat Work 


Arithmetic 


Language 


10:00-10:20 


Seat Work 


Seat Work 


Reading 


Arithmetic 


10:20-10:30 


Phonics j Reading 


Reading 


10:30-10:40 


Recess (Supervised) 


10:40-10:45 


Oral Arithmetic 


10:45-11:00 


Language and 
Literature 


Language and 
Literature 


Spelling 


Spelling 


11:00-11:15 


Language and 
Literature 


Language and 
Literature 


Spelling 


Spelling 


11:15-11:30 


Seat Work 


Seat Work 


Reading 


Reading 


11:30-11:45 


Seat Work 


Seat Work 


Gen. Hist. Stories 


Reading 


11:45-11:55 


Written Spelling 


11:55-12:00 


Preparation for Luncheon 


12:00-12:20 


Luncheon 


12:20- 1:00 


Games (Supervised) 


1:00- 1:15 


Numbers 


Numbers Geography 


Geog. or Hist. 


1:15- 1:30 


Numbers 


Numbers Geography 


Geog. or Hist. 


1:30- 1:50 


Seat Work 


Seat Work Geography 


Geog. or Hist. 


1:50- 2:10 


Reading 


Seat Work | Reading 


Geog. or Hist. 


2:10- 2:20 


Reading 


Reading | Language 


Language 


2:20- 2:30 


Seat Work 


Reading 1 Language 


Language 


2:30- 2:40 


Recess (Supervised) 


2:40- 3:00 


Industrial Work j Language j Indust. Book. 


3:00- 3:20 


Muscular Writing, Monday, Tuesday and Thursday 


3:20- 3:40 


Dismissed 


Group Reading, Monday and Thursday 


3:20- 3:40 


Dismissed 


Oral Spelling every Thursday 


3:40- 4:00 


Dismissed 


MustrMWck IS3S. 


3:00- 4:00 


Industrial Work, Wednesday and Friday 



7— 



98 



RURAL EDUCATION 





SEMI-GRADED 


PROGRAM (Primary Room) 


Time 


First Division Second Division 
(1st year) (2nd year) 


Third Division 

(3-4 years) 


9:00- 9:15 


Opening Exercises 


9:15- 9:35 


Reading 


Reading Reading 


9:35- 9:55 


Seat Work 


Reading 


Reading 


9:55-10:15 


Seat Work 


Seat Work 


Reading 

Seat Work 


10:15-10:30 


Phonics 


Seat Work 


10:30-10:40 


Recess (Supervised) 


10:40-10:45 


Oral Arithmetic 


10:45-11:05 


Language and 
Literature 


Spelling 


Spelling 


11:05-11:25 


Seat Work 


Language and 
Literature 


Language and 
Literature 


11:25-11:45 


Seat Work 


Seat Work 


Language and 
Literature 


11:45-11:55 


Seat Work 


Written Spelling 


11:55-12:00 


P 


reparation for Luncheo 


n 



12:00-12:20 




Luncheon 




12:20- 1:00 




Games (Supervised) 




1:00- 1:20 


Reading 


Numbers 


Arithmetic 


1:20- 1:35 


Seat Work 


Numbers 


Reading 


1:35- 1:55 


Seat Work 


Seat Work 


Arithmetic 


1:55- 2:10 


Reading 


Reading 


Geography or History 


2:10- 2:30 


Seat Work 


Reading 


Geography or History 



2.30- 2:40 



Recess (Supervised) 



2:40- 3:00 



Industrial Work 



Geographg or Historg 
Stories 



3:00- 3:20 



Muscular Movement Writing 



3:20- 3:40 Dismissed 


Oral Spelling, M on- 
dag, Tuesdag and 
Thursdag. 


3:40- 4:00 


Dismissed 


Sight Reading M o n- 
dag, Tuesdag and 
Thursdag. 


3:20- 4:00 


Dismissed 


Industrial Work Wed- 
nesdag and Fridag. 



THE DAILY PROGRAM 



SEMI-GRADED PROGRAM (Upper Room) 



Time 


First Division 
(5th year) 


Second Division 
(6th year) 


Third Division 
(7-8 years) 


9:00- 9:15- 


Opening Exercises 


9:15- 9:35 


Reading 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


9:35-10:00 


Reading 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


10:00-10:30 


Arithmetic 


Reading 


Arithmetic 


10:30-10:40 


Recess (Supervised) 


10:40-10:45 




Oral Arithmetic 




10:45-11:05 


Arithmetic 


Language and 
Literature 


Spelling 


11:05-11:25 


Language and 
Literature 


Reading 


Reading 


11:25-11:45 


Spelling 


Spelling 


Reading 


11:45-11:55 


Written Spelling 


11:55-12:00 


Preparation for Luncheon 


12:00-12:20 




Luncheon 




12:20- 1:00 




Games (Supervised) 




1:00- 1:20 


Language and 
Literature 


Geography 


Language and 
Literature 


1:20- 1:45 


Reading 


Language and 
Literature 


History or Geography 


1:45- 2:10 


Geography 


History Stories 


History or Geography 


2:10- 2:30 


Geography 


Reading 


Reading 


2:30- 2:40 


Recess (Supervised) 


2:40- 3:00 


Muscular Writing 


3:00- 3:20 


History Stories 
Mon. and Tues. 


History Stories or 
Geography 


Industrial Booklets 


3:20- 3:40 


Reading Thurs. 


Reading 


Language and 
Literature 


3:40- 4:00 


Group 


Reading, Monday and 1 


v uesday 


3:40- 4:00 


Oral Spelling Every Thursday 


3:00- 4:00 


Industri 


al Work, Wednesday ar 


d Friday 



CHAPTER IX 
TEACHING READING 

Undoubtedly the most important subject for the first 
few grades, or the first division of an ungraded school, is 
reading. Students are usually good or poor in their work 
in the upper grades in proportion to their ability to read. 
It is impossible to master a lesson in geography or history, 
or to solve a problem in arithmetic without being a fairly 
good reader. While the schools as a whole are much better 
than they have ever been, it will be admitted by those who 
have carefully studied the situation, that the average school 
does not get the desired results in reading, especially in the 
rural schools. Rural schoolteachers are generally young 
and comparatively inexperienced. They recognize the 
defects, but rarely apply a remedy. If they do succeed 
in making conditions better, their tenure of office is so short 
that the improvement is often merely temporary. In my 
judgment poor reading in the rural schools is due to three 
chief causes: lack of phonics, too little dictionary work, and 
not enough time spent in reading. 

Phonics teaching is absolutely necessary, if the child 
is ever to become self-reliant in reading. The plain fact is 
that very few teachers really know enough about phonics 
to be able to teach reading well. This statement is made 
advisedly after about twelve years experience in supervising 
grade and rural teachers. It is the exception to find phonics 
on the program of a country school, and yet it is as impos- 
sible to make independent readers out of students without 
phonics as it would be to have them solve complex problems 
without having the fundamental operations in arithmetic. 
It cannot be expected that children will master enough 

100 



TEACHING READING 101 

"sight words" to read fluently, and the experience of every 
teacher will show that they do not. I have seen upper 
grades where the students would invariably stumble over 
the reading lesson, and primary grades where every child 
could pick up a newspaper and read it almost as fluently as 
an adult. The difference was in the teaching, not in the 
children. Any teacher who is worthy of the name can 
master phonics, if she is but willing to study carefully the 
manual of the method reader she is using. Afterwards it 
will not be difficult to teach what has been learned. Prob- 
ably no one method is better than the others. Any up- 
to-date one in the hands of a good teacher will secure the 
desired results. 

Dictionary work, and plenty of it, must follow the 
phonics. By the time the student has entered the Second 
Division, or fourth and fifth grades, he should own a dic- 
tionary and know how to use it. 

The third cause of poor reading enumerated is perhaps 
the most serious of all. Observation of many schools would 
show that, even if the mechanics of reading were mastered 
through phonics and the dictionary, the students could 
not become forceful readers with expression in the time they 
actually read in school. The child learns to read by reading, 
and not by being told how to read. The following instance, 
applicable to many schools in both village and country, 
illustrates the case. A class of thirty students in an inter- 
mediate grade had one reading period of thirty minutes 
daily. If the teacher used no time whatever, there would 
be an average of one minute each for the pupils to read 
aloud. Compute this for the entire year and allow for no 
absences, and we find the ridiculous sum of three hours. 
And yet we sometimes wonder why the schools turn out 
poorer readers than they should. The students may recite 



102 RURAL EDUCATION 

more than once a day, but after the teacher has used all 
the time she lmsiy legitimately take — she often uses more — 
how many minutes a day do the students actually read 
aloud? Not enough, you will probably agree; but how is 
more time to be obtained? Eliminate numbers and some 
other work, except incidentally, in the first year and part 
of the second. Get rid of the waste time in the mechanics 
of the schoolroom. Make directions short and to the 
point. "Read the next little story, Mary." "Be sure to 
tell it to me just as it is." "Are you sure that is just right?" 
"There, that is better, Mary," are expressions we have often 
heard when the child reads one line of half a dozen words. 
To waste still more time, the pupil is asked to walk several 
steps to the teacher and back again. Just what principle of 
pedagogy such teachers have in mind, I have never been 
able to discover. Others, with the simple direction, "Next, 
Mary," will get a half page read in the same time. 

Some teachers are satisfied with having a class read two 
or three books in a year. The author can remember when 
one book was all that his class was expected to read. Every 
spring for several years I have visited a certain school in 
Minnesota, where the students are noted for good reading. 
The students of the first four grades average reading about 
thirty books a year in school. The results are marvelous. 
I have never seen better reading anywhere. These teachers 
are working on the theory that the child learns to read by 
reading, and they are not only getting expression that can 
be obtained in no other way, but a wealth of information 
that makes all other subjects easy. A list of the books read 
in these grades last year is given for your consideration at 
the close of the chapter. 

Dr. Judd, of Chicago University, made some interesting 
investigations in reading. His conclusions are that, during 



TEACHING READING 103 

the last half of the elementary grades, the child is seriously 
retarded in this subject, because the schools still use the 
same methods as in the primary grades. The pupil stum- 
bles, because his eye reads so much faster than he is able to 
pronounce the words. Hence, the most of the reading of 
the advanced classes should be silent rather than oral, and 
the teacher must use entirely different methods in the 
advanced grades than she uses in the primary grades. This 
is an interesting conclusion and well worth considering. 

Group reading is a plan now used in many of the best 
schools to supplement the regular reading classes. It is 
usually sight reading and, therefore, books a few grades 
lower than the regular reader should be used at first. 

The program suggested for rural schools allows twenty 
minutes for group reading three times a week. The pupils 
of the first and second years are usually not sufficiently 
advanced for this work, although I have seen it well done 
in the primary room of a graded school. In conducting 
the recitation, the teacher should divide the entire school 
into groups of two, unless there are thirty or more students. 
In that case, three in a group would be better. The fewer 
in a group, the more time each has to read, but there must 
be no more groups than the teacher can give individual 
attention. One student in each group acts as leader and is 
responsible for getting and returning the books. We have 
used five cent paper covered classics for this work for six 
years and had them in good condition. Of course, this 
would not be possible, if the students used the books at 
their desks. They have them only during the recitation. 
One entertainment in almost any rural school would furnish 
enough money to buy abundance of group reading material. 

As soon as the books are passed one student of each 
group begins to read aloud, He reads a paragraph or two, 



104 RURAL EDUCATION 

and then the other reads until a convenient stopping place 
is reached. If there are more than two in a group, all read 
in turn, as many times around as the period will permit. 
With two in a group, each pupil reads for ten minutes, a 
longer time than is devoted to reading in the regular class 
in an entire week. 

If group reading has never been tried in a school, the 
students will probably think it odd for a few times until they 
get used to it. But this "organized confusion" should be 
conducive to excellent results. Everything, however, will 
depend upon the teacher. Some of the best reading I 
have ever seen has been done in this way, where the teacher 
passed quietly from group to group, pronouncing a word 
here, correcting a faulty expression there, and keeping up 
the interest everywhere. On the other hand, teachers have 
started the group reading work and then sat at the desk 
doing something else for the entire period. Such a plan 
not only invites failure; it insures it. 

A list of the classics used for group reading in one school, 
is here given, because it may be helpful to young teachers. 
The author would have appreciated such information a few 
years ago. In addition to literature, these lists include 
material for elementary science, geography and history. 



SUGGESTIVE GRADED LISTS FOR GROUP READING 

FIRST LIST 

First Grade 

Story of the Buds. Aesop's Fables, I. 

Flower Friends I. Aesop's Fables, II. 

Butterfly's Home. Butterfly's Baby. 

Babes of the Meadow. Selections from Aesop I. 

Babes of the Wood. Selections from Aesop II. 
Plant Babies, 



TEACHING READING 



105 



Second Grade 



Roots and Stems. 
Robinson Crusoe I. 
Robinson Crusoe II. 
Robinson Crusoe III. 
Robinson Crusoe IV. 
Children of History I. 
Children of History II. 



The Flower World. 
Little Red Riding Hood. 
Flower Friends II. 
Flower Friends III. 
Some Bird Friends. 
Legends of Spring Time. 



Third Grade 



Stories of Pilgrims. 

Story of Pocahontas. 

Washington Irving. 

George Stephenson. 

General Putnam. 

Columbus. 

Robert Fulton. 

Peter Cooper. 

Story of Franklin. 

Tennyson. 

Stories of Am. Rev. I. 

Stories of Am. Rev. II. 

Stories of Am. Rev. III. 

Stories from Garden and Field I. 

Stories from Garden and Field II. 

James Watt. 

Louisa M. Alcott. 

S. F. B. Morse. 

Hawthorne. 



Edison. 

Puss in Boots. 

Story of Norsemen. 

Libertv Bell. 

Whittier. 

Cyrus W. Field. 

Storv of Bryant. 

Eli Whitney. 

William Penn. 

Washington. 

Daniel Webster. 

Lincoln. 

Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe I. 

Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe II. 

Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe 

III. 
Grimm's Fairy Tales, I. 
Grimm's Fairy Tales, II. 
Boston Tea Party. 



Fourth Grade 



Story of Marquette. 

Joan of Arc. 

Selections from Longfellow. 

Stories of Flowerland I. 

Stories of Birdland I. 

Stories of Birdland II. 

Longfellow. 

Stories of Woodland I. 



Stories of Woodland II. 

Chevalier La Salle. 

Holmes. 

The Golden Touch. 

Pioneers of West. 

Fremont and Kit Carson. 

Story of De Soto. 



Thomas Jefferson. 
Story of Dickens. 
Story of Lafayette. 
Admiral Farragut. 
The Chimaera. 



Fifth Grade 



Three Golden Apples. 
Miraculous Pitcher. 
Paradise of Children. 
Story of Audubon. 



106 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Sixth Grade 



Thanatopsis. 

Selections from Longfellow 

Great Carbuncle. 



John Gilpin. 

King of Golden River. 

We Are Seven. 



Seventh Grade 



Madison. 

Patrick Henry. 

Peter Stuyvesant. 

Henry Hudson. - 

Life of Grant. 

Washington. 

Enoch Arden. 

Evangeline. 

Rime of Ancient Mariner. 

The Voyage. 



Philip of Pokanaket. 

Peter the Great. 

Oliver Hazard Perry. 

Lays of Ancient Rome. 

George Dewey. 

Declaration of Independence. 

The Culprit Fay. 

John Paul Jones. 

The Boy Lincoln. 

John Hancock. 



Eighth Grade 



Howe's Masquerade. 
Mr. Higginbotham's Catastrophe. 
Frederick Douglas. 
Choice Selections. 
Stratf ord-on- A von . 
Merchant of Venice. 
As You Like It. 
Julius Caesar. 
Prisoner of Chillon. 
Othello. 

Tempest — Mid-summer Night's 
Dream. 



Cotter's Saturday Night. 
The Deserted Village. 
Henry VIII. 
Lady Eleanor's Mantle. 
Lincoln's Speeches. 
The Elegy. 
Richard II. 
Jefferson. ■ 
Prophetic Pictures. 
John Adams. 
Alexander Hamilton. 
Minister's Black Veil. 



SECOND LIST 
First Grade 



Fairy Stories of the Moon. 
Indian Myths. 
Nurserv Tales. 



Sun Myths. 

Norse Legends. 

Kittv Mittens and Her Friends. 



Second Grade 



Stories from Anderson. 

Stories from Grimm. 

Little Workers. 

Jack and the Beanstalk. 

Adventures of a Brownie. 

Norse Legends. 

Story of Wooh 



Bird Stories from the Poets. 
The Little Brown Baby and Other 

Babies. 
Gemila, the Child of the Desert 

and Some of Her Sisters. 
Child's Garden of Verses, 



TEACHING READING 107 



Third Grade 



Story of Flax. Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard. 

Story of Glass. Famous Artists. 

Adventures of a Little Waterdrop. 

Fourth Grade 

Story of Coal. Alice's First Adventures in Won- 

Story of Wheat. derland. 

Night Before Christmas and Other Famous Artists. 
Christmas Poems and Stories. Goody Two-Shoes. 

Fifth Grade 

Story of Silk. Heroes from King Arthur. 

Story of Sugar. Whittier's Poems. 

History in Verse. Jackanapes. 

A Dog of Flanders. Stories from Robin Hood. 

Sixth Grade 

Gifts of the Forest. Later English Heroes. 

Great European Cities. Story of William Tell. 

Old English Heroes. 

Seventh Grade 

Courtship of Miles Standish Story of Jean Valjean. 

Snow Bound. Poems of Thomas Moore. 

Man without a Country. 

Eighth Grade 

Building of the Ship, etc. Gold Bug. 

Horatius, The Armada, Bunker Edgar Allen Poe. 
Hill Address. 



The purpose of all reading has been said to be "the 
interpretation of the printed page with accuracy and a 
reasonable degree of rapidity." From the standpoint of 
learning to read, it should be a thought-getting and a 
thought-giving process. The time of the reading class, 
therefore, should not be taken up with either word drills or 
phonics at first, but with reading only. 

The teacher should own a printing press, which can be 
purchased for about one dollar and a half, and make a few 



108 RURAL EDUCATION 

charts for the beginning class in reading. Chart and black- 
board work, together with word drills, should constitute the 
lessons for the first few weeks. The author believes that 
script and print should be taught at the same time, as a 
great many experiments with all classes of children have 
shown that they get both almost, if not quite, as easily as 
one at a time. 

During the entire course, the work in reading should be 
supplemented with the story telling, dramatization, and 
memorizing of literary masterpieces in the language classes. 
Word and phonics drills should be conducted until all the 
students can read smoothly. Good reading necessitates 
rapid eye movement. Special drills for this should be 
given at frequent intervals. The voice and body should be 
allowed to help express thought. Hence the value of dram- 
atization, plays and other work of the kind. In the seat 
work following the reading lesson, the pupils should have 
an opportunity to express the thoughts of the lesson in 
hand work, such as clay modeling, paper cutting, drawing, 
etc. These things will test the thought-getting process. 

If the Division Plan instead of the grade plan is followed 
in the rural school, the classes in reading, as in other sub- 
jects, should be divided into three divisions. The First 
Division classes can either recite separately, dividing the 
reading period as given in the program, or all at one time, 
by the "Endless Chain" method. That is, the teacher can 
call the entire First Division for recitation and have all 
three classes recite at once. This method may seem diffi- 
cult or even unwise; but I have seen many teachers get 
excellent results in this way. It will be remembered that 
the lower grades of a rural school do not average more than 
three or four students each. Hence, ten or a dozen students 
would constitute the entire First Division. In following the 



TEACHING READING 109 

"Endless Chain" method, the teacher has each class of the 
division sit in a little semi-circle around her. She starts 
the second and third classes in about the same manner in 
which group reading is conducted. They read in a rather 
low tone, not disturbing the other students, while the 
teacher presents the new work to the first class. As the other 
two classes are close by her, she can assist them, if necessary, 
without interfering with her own work with the other class. 
As soon as she is through with the first class, they are al- 
lowed to continue reading, and the teacher presents the 
new work and assists the second class. The third class 
work is then conducted in a similar manner. In this way, 
each student will be receiving the direct help of the teacher 
for thirty minutes in the reading recitation, whereas he 
would receive but ten minutes, if each class were called 
separately. While there are disadvantages in such a plan, 
the advantages are evident, if the teacher is capable of 
conducting the work in this way. It is a very interesting 
method and should not be condemned until thoroughly 
tried. 

In the Second and Third Division, the classes in reading 
should be combined, that is, the fourth and fifth year pupils 
should recite together, reading one half of the second year's 
work one year and the other half the next. The Third 
Division, or sixth and seventh year students, should be 
conducted in the same way. If the students have been 
well instructed in those elements that are necessary to pro- 
duce good reading, there is no reason why these two divi- 
sions can not be combined with profit. There is no par- 
ticular difference which half of a given list of reading books 
is read the first year after the student has passed the First 
Division. A brief outline for each division follows. 



110 RURAL EDUCATION 

FIRST DIVISION WORK (1-3 years) 

While the work of the division may be carried on by 
the " Endless Chain" method, as already suggested, some 
teachers will undoubtedly prefer to keep the classes sepa- 
rate. The work of each year is here discussed with that 
plan in view. 

First Year Work. First of all, some good method reader 
should be selected, if one has not already been adopted. A 
suggestive list of readers is given at the close of this chapter. 
The teacher's manual may be obtained from the publisher 
of the method reader used. This manual must be studied 
carefully and followed as closely as possible. The charts 
made for the beginning class should be based upon the 
first 'book or primer of the series used. These charts, pre- 
viously suggested, may be illustrated with pictures and 
made attractive. Pictures for this purpose can always be 
obtained from old readers, magazines, and other sources. 
It is not best for the teacher to confine herself to one 
method. For example, if the sentence method is used at 
first, it is well to use the best of the other methods later. 

The work for about the first six weeks should consist 
of chart and blackboard work, using both script and print. 
The program is arranged for a recitation period of thirty 
minutes in reading in the morning and twenty minutes in 
the afternoon for this division. The teacher should see 
that this time is used for reading only. Some good teachers 
prefer to begin phonics at the first of the year. I should 
rather wait until the chart work has been completed. At 
any rate the phonics should be given during the phonics 
period and not with the reading. Phonics and word drills 
are purely mechanical. If part of this time is taken up in 
presenting phonics, the child will not get the proper con- 
ception of reading. It will not be a thought-getting process 



TEACHING READIXG 111 

for him. Phonics is merely a means to an end, and good 
reading is the end sought. Word drills should be placed 
on the board and a rapid drill given just preceding the 
study period for reading. Other drills may be printed on 
charts. 

After the board and chart work have been thoroughly 
mastered, but not memorized, the primer or first book of 
the method series should be taken up. Usually about 
twenty-five or thirty pages of the primer can be studied 
by teaching words only. Some teachers prefer to read 
about that much in three or four different primers before 
laying a sufficient foundation in phonics to continue in the 
basic text. For a while after taking up the work in the 
primer, it is best to use the same book for both reading 
periods. A little later, however, a book for each period 
should be used. As soon as the primer has been com- 
pleted, the first book of the series ought to be taken up 
preferably in the morning period, and as many books read 
in the afternoon period as can be mastered. Students can 
often read much more than they do, if only given the oppor- 
tunity. During the first year in school the class should 
read at least three primers and three first readers. This 
surely is a conservative number in view of the fact that- 
some schools read over thirty, as already noted. It is 
imperative that the teacher understand the plan of the 
series used. Some plans have the primer and the first 
reader for the first year's work; others have a first and 
second book for the first year; still others, a primer only 
for the first year and a first reader for the second year. 

Second Year. It is well to begin with a reader that is 
a little below the children's maximum ability at the end of 
the first year. Read two or three first readers, preferably 
sets not read before in the first year's work, and at least 



112 RURAL EDUCATION 

four second readers during the year. This number should 
easily be read, if the first year's work has been well done. 
Review and continue the work in phonics at first during the 
phonics period only, later with the reading period, if desired. 
Word drills and dramatization are as essential as in the 
first year's work. Children at this age need to act things 
out, and the value of dramatization as a means to good 
expression cannot be overestimated. 

Third Year. Read two or three second year readers and 
three or four third year readers. Keep up the drill work 
in phonics. At the end of this year, students should have 
mastered the mechanics of reading. If they have not done 
so, it is well for the teacher to make a careful study of the 
situation, as it is probably not the fault of the student. 
Consult the books suggested for supplementary reading as 
well as the lists for group reading. Try to get some of these 
for the library and encourage the students to read them 
outside of class work. The teacher who can cultivate in 
her pupils a love for good reading has done her part. One 
great educator said, "If you teach a child how to read with- 
out teaching him what to read, you have put a dangerous 
weapon in his hands." 

SECOND DIVISION WORK (4-5 years) 

As already intimated, the two classes of this division 
should be combined. Each class will then have just twice 
the time that it would have if they were not combined. 
Since the students should know the mechanics of reading 
when they enter the Second Division, it makes little differ- 
ence which half of a given list of books they read first. 
Plan to read at least a dozen regular and supplementary 
readers during these two years. Continue with the books 
of the same set you were using in the First Division, as 



TEACHING READING 113 

several of these will undoubtedly have six or eight books in 
a series. Do not allow the students to get the false notion 
that they have been put back in case they read from books 
below their grade. In fact, it is usually best to begin the 
year's work in reading with a book or two below grade. 
For this division, I would suggest about two third readers, 
six fourth readers, and six fifth readers. Following this 
plan, the students would read one third reader, three fourth 
readers, and three fifth readers each year. Much addi- 
tional supplementary reading can be given in this division, 
if the group reading material is available. If students are 
not familiar enough with phonics, give them the phonic 
drills with the First Division, or by themselves, as most 
convenient. Continue with dramatization, and have the 
students memorize several selections from literature, unless 
it seems best that they should do so in the language work. 

THIRD DIVISION WORK (6-7 years) 

The two classes of this division recite together, as sug- 
gested for the Second Division. From twelve to fifteen 
books should be read during the two years, reading one 
half of the list the first year, and the other half the other 
year. Some of these books will probably be the advanced 
books of the regular readers. The rest should be classics. 
This division will be able to read a great many of the classics 
in the group reading list. Continue memorizing literary 
selections and drill for expression. It is well for the teacher 
to remember that from seventy-five to ninety per cent of 
the students in this division will never get beyond these 
grades in school. They are, therefore, getting their prep- 
aration for life rather than for high school. Review phonics 
even in this division. If the students stumble in their read- 
ing, special drills for expression can be put on the board and 



114 



RURAL EDUCATION 



on charts, to overcome mechanical reading. They should 
also be encouraged to do a great deal of silent reading. 

I have already referred to the fact that one school in 
Minnesota plans to read an average of thirty books in each 
of the lower grades, annually. I believe the list of books 
read will be of interest to teachers. The books used in the 
first four grades last year are here given. It will be noticed 
that the students of the third and fourth grades were com- 
bined. This is worthy of mention, because some teachers 
think it is impossible to combine even the fourth and fifth 
years as suggested in our Second Division work. 



BOOKS READ IN ONE YEAR 



First Grade 



Ward Primer 

Ward Additional Primer 

Expression Primer 

Laurel Primer 

Little Red Hen 

Wide Awake Primer 

Wide Awake I. 

Child Life Primer 

Howe Primer 

Ward Additional I. 

Blodgette Primer 

Reading Literature Primer 

Ward I 

Reading Literature I. 

Sunbonnet Babies 



Ward Primer 

Ward Additional Primer 

Ward I 

Ward Additional I. 

Child Life II. 

Reynard the Fox. 

Ward II. 

Child Lore Dramatic 

Ward III. 

Philip at School 



Art Literature I. 
Palmer Method Primer 
Hiawatha Primer 
Philip at School 
Brownie Primer 
Lights to Literature I. 
Dramatic Reader I. 
Child Lore Dramatic 
Child Life I. 
Child Life II. 
Howe I. 

Polly and Dolly 
Overall Boys 
Cat That Was Lonesome 
Mouse That Lost His Tail 
Circus Reader 



Second Grade 



Pig Brother 
Polly and Dolly 
Tommy Tinker 
Stepping Stones III. 
Mother Goose Village 
Nature Myths 
Dramatization of Hiawatha 
Dramatic Reader I. 
Great Americans for Little Ameri- 
cans 



TEACHING READING 115 

Second Grade — Continued 

Brownie Primer Dramatic Reader II. 

Little Red Hen Early Cavemen 

Circus Reader Tree Dwellers 

Howe II. Lodrix 

Stepping Stones II. Children of Cliff 

Eskimo Stories Old Mother West Wind 

Boy Blue and Friends Howe III. 

Third and Fourth Grades 
(Combined) 
Mother Goose Village Boyhood of Washington 

Classic Myths A Perfect Tribute 

Children of History I. In Fable Land 

Children of History II. Dramatic Reader 

Howe III. Child Life III. 

Merry Animal Tales Viking Tales 

Adventures of a Brownie Wagner Opera Stories 

Old Mother West Wind Four Footed Friends 

Four Old Greeks Boyhood of Lincoln 

Note: The above list is for the first seven months only. 

OUTLINE IN PHONICS 

The outline here suggested is not expected to take the 
place of a method reader. The importance of studying the 
teacher's manual for the basic text or method reader used 
has already been emphasized. The order of this outline 
will probably not coincide with that of the phonics given in 
the teacher's manual. It seems logical, and may be used 
to supplement the manual. 

The work in phonics should be started about the time 
the students begin to read in the book. The importance of 
special charts for phonics, rather than having that work dur- 
ing the reading period, cannot be too strongly emphasized. 
Phonics is mechanical, reading should not be. Ordinarily, it is 
considered that students should be able to complete phonics 
in about a year and a half. It will not be difficult, therefore, 
to master this outline by the time they have finished the 
First Division work. If they have not done this, I would 
say it is the fault of the teacher rather than of the student. 



116 RURAL EDUCATION 

I. Classes of Phonic Keys 

1. Short keys 

2. Long keys 

3. Consonant keys 

4. Sight keys 

II. Order of Presentation 

1. Short vowel sounds and some consonant sounds 

2. Short keys and the rest of the consonant sounds after they 
are needed 

3. Families with short keys (made by combining consonant 
sounds with short keys, thus b — at, etc.) 

4. Long vowel sounds 

5. Long keys (formed by adding V to the short keys) 

6. Families of words with the long keys 

7. Consonant keys 

8. Sight keys 

9. Keys with more than one sound 

By the end of the first year the students will probably 
have gone at least as far as six or seven, in order of presenta- 
tion. Much drill must be given on the different families 
of words and on making out new words. In the second and 
third years review and drill with emphasis upon the families 
and new words. Then take up the last three topics, and 
begin to teach diacritical marks. Students should be 
ready for the formal study of the dictionary as soon as they 
enter the Second Division. They should then be asked to 
buy a good dictionary, and systematic lessons should be 
given on the way to use it. 

Reading Sets 
Method Readers Suitable for Basic Texts 
The Gordon Readers Aldine Readers 

The Beacon Readers Lippincott's Readers 

The Ward Series Baldwin & Bender Readers 

New Progressive Road 

Supplementary Readers 
Jones Readers The Elson Readers 

Carroll and Brooks Free & Treadwell Readers 

Lights to Literature The Brooks Readers 

The Health Readers The Wide- A wake Readers 

Language Readers American School Readers 

Williams' Choice Literature The Howe Readers 

Sprague Classic Readers 



CHAPTER X 
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 

Language is one of the subjects too often slighted in the 
rural schools, perhaps because the teacher is least familiar 
with what to teach and how to teach it. The aim of this 
course is to assist students to use good English both in oral 
and written expression, and to create a desire for the best 
in literature. Experience has proved that technical gram- 
mar will not do this. Hence, all the work in the first two 
divisions nd a large part of that in the third must be some- 
thing else than grammar. 

If the teacher were not so used to hearing incorrect 
expressions from the students and receiving poorly written 
composition papers, she would be surprised that a child 
could not learn to use good English in one year. The 
method of teaching language must surely be inefficient, 
when even high school students often fail to speak correctly 
and are still worse in written work. Much of the written 
work should never have been done. Teachers sometimes 
give written lessons with no intention of ever reading the 
papers, thereby committing a crime against good teaching. 
No paper should ever be written unless it is to be the very 
best work the student can produce, and unless it is to be 
carefully read and criticized by the teacher, and returned 
to the student for correction. This cannot be done every 
day. Better by far have a written lesson once a week or 
even every two weeks and demand efficient work, and 
nothing but the best expression at his command should be 
accepted from any student in recitation work. 

Language teaching is still more difficult, if the child is 
unfortunate enough to hear incorrect expressions at home. 

117 



118 RURAL EDUCATION 

Such may be unavoidable, but there is no excuse for the 
teachers who will allow children who do use correct forms 
when they enter school to become confused on account of the 
poor language heard in the schoolroom. Drill, drill, drill, 
and have some definite plan of drill. Drill must be the 
slogan of the teacher. 

Until recently there have been but very few helps for 
the teacher in language. Since technical grammar has 
been driven from the grades to the high school, where it 
belongs, some really good language books are appearing. 
There are still on the market so-called language series that 
begin to teach grammar in the fourth grade. The teacher 
should become familiar with as many of the new books as 
possible before attempting to teach the work of the First 
Division where no textbook should be used. 

The teacher should remember that the first requisite of 
good language teaching is to secure the interest of the 
children. Some teachers are natural story tellers; others 
must learn to be. Even a story well read, if it is proper- 
ly selected, will hold the interest of the children. While 
a great deal of material is suggested for the first division 
work, it remains for the teacher to correlate these topics 
in such a way that there will be unity. 

FIRST DIVISION WORK > 

The three classes of this division can easily recite at 
the same time, as the lessons are given by the teacher and 
reproduced by the pupils. One of the best ways to begin 
is to select some very interesting story full of action such 
as the Three Bears' or the story of 'The Little Half Chick,' 
and either tell it or read it well. As soon as the story has 
been told, select pupils from the class to act out the parts 
as the teacher retells it. Continue, then, until the pupils can 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 119 

give it all, changing the children until all have taken part. 
Many good stories can be taken directly from the reading 
lesson and dramatized in the language class. So much ex- 
cellent material is to be obtained from mythology and liter- 
ature that there is no need of using anything commonplace 
in this work. The library should contain a few special books. 

The aim of the language for this division is two fold: 
First, to create a love for good literature; and, second, to 
enable the child to express his own thoughts on subjects 
within his experience, as well as to express new thoughts 
that are brought to him through stories, songs, poems, 
pictures, etc. The first aim may be accomplished by stories 
read and told by the teacher, and the second by conversa- 
tion, dramatization, oral reproductions, stories, and by 
definite questions and answers based on stories, pictures 
and nature studies. From what has already been said in 
the introduction, it is evident that the greater part of the 
work in the First Division should be oral. 

There is a mechanical side in language as well as in 
reading. The things to be emphasized in this are correct 
forms of speech, enlarging the vocabulary, and correcting 
common errors in expression, also the use of capitals, such 
as at the beginning of a sentence and lines of poetry, I and 
O, and in proper names. These rules are all within the 
comprehension of the children, as they are using the forms 
from day to day. Other mechanics are the use of the 
question and quotation marks, the period and such other 
marks of punctuation as students will see in reading the 
stories that will be dramatized in the language lesson. 
During the last half of the work of this division, after the 
children have begun to write, margins, simple paragraphs, 
and elements of letter writing, should be taken up. If the 
teacher prefers to keep the work of the First Division chil- 



120 RURAL EDUCATION 

dren separate from the second and third-year students of 
the First Division, she will find abundance of material in the 
topics suggested under the several heads for this division. 
Time should be saved by having all the classes of this di- 
vision recite together. The following topics are suggested : 

Common Objects. Conversation about toys, animals, 
plants, flowers, colors, or any articles in common use in the 
home and at school. Describe the position of objects in 
the schoolroom by the proper use of such terms as, on, 
above, under, left, right, before, behind, in the middle, and 
other similar words. Children will be delighted to tell 
about the playthings used at home. 

Phenomena of Nature. Conversation about the sky, 
clouds, water, rain, hail, snow, rocks, soils, metals, grass, 
grains, weeds, insects, birds, etc. The sun, the moon, and 
the stars are also interesting topics under this head. Many 
of these can be studied at first hand and from suitable 
poems about nature. 

Pictures. Prints in black and white, colored pictures, 
and those sketched on the blackboard by the teacher can 
be used. The pictures of the schoolroom should always 
be utilized in this way. Too often, schoolroom pictures 
are merely dust collectors. It is better to have one good 
picture that will really be an inspiration to all in the school- 
room than twenty such as those often found hanging on 
the walls. Small pictures can be used to advantage for 
individual work. The Perry pictures are good, and a 
sufficient quantity for this purpose can be obtained for a 
few cents. Encourage the students to talk freely about 
the pictures used, which, later on, may be made the basis 
for the written work in language. 

Literature. Stories and poems. As already stated, the 
teacher should develop the art of story telling; but, until 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 121 

then, read the selections well. Fairy tales, fables, stories 
of child life, stories of animals, and stories of great men 
and women may be used. Most of the modern primers 
have some stories that can be used in the work of this divi- 
sion. See that the students are given an opportunity to 
learn some of the great literary masterpieces. The idea 
used to prevail, that children could not appreciate litera- 
ture, and attempts were made to rewrite the original in 
such form as they could understand. We now know this 
is a false conception. I have heard children of the second 
and third grades give the Children's Hour, poems from 
Eugene Field and Robert Louis Stevenson, selections from 
Hiawatha and similar literature from other authors, with 
as much feeling and expression as any grown-up could 
give them. A list of suitable selections for memorizing 
is given at the close of the chapter. 

Dramatization. This is a very important and interest- 
ing part of the language work. Simple costumes can easily 




Figure 9. Dramatizing a Christmas story in the First Division 



122 RURAL EDUCATION 

be prepared for special events, for example, the Pilgrim 
hat, collar and cuffs for a Thanksgiving program. Al- 
though discussed under the head of reading, it is understood 
that a large part of this work should be done in the lan- 
guage period. Only stories full of action and interest 
should be selected. It is better to have the children volun- 
teer for the work in dramatization than to assign them to 
the parts and ask them to learn something that they, per- 
haps, do not care for, as this would kill spontaneity, the 
very thing for which we are working. 

Correct Forms of Expression. Constant drill on the use 
of such words as I, me, is, are, was, were, has, have, see, 
saw, seen, do, did, done, want, give, this, that, these, those, 
nothing, anything, come, came, write, wrote, written, know, 
knew, known, take, took, taken. Special exercises to pre- 
vent such incorrect expressions as "ain't got," "it is me," 
"it was them," "I seen him," "me and John will go." 

Hygiene. Conversation about the human body, its use 
and beauty, how to take care of it, a simple discussion of 
foods, what to eat and what not to eat. The effects of 
stimulants and narcotics, such as tea, coffee and tobacco 
upon the growth of a child. Cleanliness as related to 
the face and hands, fingernails and care of the hair and 
teeth. Correct position of the body in sitting, standing and 
walking. Care of the eyes, ears and mouth. Infectious 
and contagious diseases, with special reference to their bear- 
ing on the health and welfare of childhood. 

Food, Drink and Clothing. Lessons about bread, beef, 
mutton, milk, butter, rice, breakfast foods, fruit* of dif- 
ferent kinds and other products of food and drink suitable 
for children. In the study of clothing, lessons should be 
given on the raw material from which garments are ob- 
tained. Cotton, linen, woolen, silk, leather, may be taken 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 123 

in order. A homemade collection of the raw materials and 
the manufactured products would be valuable. 

Morals and Conduct. Conversation and stories to in- 
culcate a spirit of kindness to one another, to brothers and 
sisters, parents and teachers; kindness to animals, and 
respect due to the aged and those in authority. Give 
training in polite and courteous manners, as well as polite 
forms of speech. Under this head, talks on the care and 
use of the school building, furniture, apparatus, books, 
and outbuildings, should be given. 

Written Work. A small amount of written work can 
profitably be done in this division during the latter part 
of the second and third years. The tendency is to overdo 
this, however. Plenty of material for the written work 
can be found in the above outlines for the oral work. In 
addition, shnple letter writing should be studied, as already 
intimated. The calendar will furnish interesting material 
for the days of the week and the months of the year. A 
new calendar should be made at the beginning of each 
month, and the old one taken down. 

SECOND DIVISION 

If the students have learned to read well enough so 
that they can get the thought from the printed page, there 
is no reason why some suitable textbook in language should 
not be introduced in the Second Division. If it seems best 
to use the book only during the last half of the year, review 
work from the First Division outline may be given during the 
first half. The two classes will, of course, recite together. 
Even if the book is used from the first, it is well to review 
those parts in which the class may be weak. 

Great care should be used in selecting a suitable lan- 
guage series. Get one that will be true to name, and post- 



124 RURAL EDUCATION 

pone the technical grammar at least until the grammar 
grades. On more than one occasion, teachers have called 
my attention to some splendid work in the intermediate 
grades in parsing and diagraming, to prove that students 
of those grades could study grammar and apparently under- 
stand it. I have never denied that they could. In fact, 
I am also willing to admit that the same students could 
reproduce figures in geometry and give the theorems, and 
recite in many other subjects that we never think of offer- 
ing in the grades. Such things, however, are done at the 
expense of the fundamentals which they should be learn- 
ing during these years. In every case where students were 
spending their time on these technical forms, I found them 
to be weak in oral and written expression. 

A book that has enough material for the two years' 
work, may be selected for this division, or, if desirable, two 
books in the same series may be selected. The teacher 
should become familiar with the entire book before planning 
the work for the class, as she may need to omit some of it 
or have it studied in a different order. Watch for the 
faulty expressions in the oral work and keep up the special 
drills as long as drills may be needed. Get a copy of 
the teacher's manual for the language series you are using, 
and make good use of it. The newer textbooks will give 
for intermediate work such topics as: the study of pictures, 
story telling, letter writing, holiday and vacation games, 
nature stories, geography and history stories, adventures, 
home life, and others. Word drills may be given from the 
reading and other lessons, to increase the vocabulary. A 
study of the dictionary should be work for the language as 
well as reading classes. At least one suitable selection 
should be memorized each month. If the text used does 
not give sufficient work of this kind, consult the reference 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 125 

list given in this chapter. As the First Division is the period 
of imitation, so the intermediate division is the habit form- 
ing period. It is well for the teacher to remember that the 
students will probably always use the same kind of oral 
and written language that they are using when they leave 
this division. Good English is, after all, largely a matter 
of habit. Habits formed during these early years are hard 
to break after children reach the grammar grades. 

THIRD DIVISION 

The sixth and seventh year students of this division 
will recite together. The first week or two may be spent 
in ascertaining whether more drill is needed in the work 
of the Second Division before continuing with the more 
formal work in English. As long as incorrect habits of 
expression exist, continue drilling and try to correct them. 

If the students are to be given a year's work in gram- 
mar, it is best to have it divided and give half each year 
of this division. As already stated, it is better not to give 
grammar at all unless you are sure that the pupils already 
have that which is so much more necessary for them, the 
ability to speak and write good English. Most high schools 
now prefer a certificate in composition to one in grammar, 
in admitting students from the country schools. 

It is best to use the same series of language books that 
is used in the other division. Plan to have at least one 
half of the work each year oral and written language, and, 
if any grammar is studied, use only the practical parts. 
Some very interesting discussions in constructions are 
possible in high school English, but they are out of place 
in the elementary schools. Many of the students of the 
rural schools will, unfortunately, never get any further in 
school work, and, therefore, the course in English should 



126 RURAL EDUCATION 

• 

be such as to give them the most practical help for their 
life work. For this reason, such topics as business letters, 
sending a telegram, taking notes, and debate work are of 
importance. Oral and written descriptions, how to select 
good books from the library, the ability to give talks be- 
fore the school on current events, and knowledge of sim- 
ple parliamentary rules, to enable one to take charge of a 
business meeting, are also important phases of the work 
for the Third Division. 

DRILLS FOR EXPRESSION 

The following drills for expression are suggested for 
the First and Second Division. Other suitable drills for 
this work should be selected by the teacher. An occasional 
exercise of this kind is proper even in the Third Division. 

Flash Card Exercise 

1. My! how tall you are! 

2. Run, run, old dog! 

3. Hurrah for the flag! 

4. Be quick mamma! 

5. Please let me go. 

6. A good dog. 

7. Run, dog, run! 

8. What a dirty face! 

9. All aboard! All aboard! 

10. A black dog. 

11. A strong dog. 

12. Jump, dog, jump! 

13. Quick! Jack! Quick, I say! Jump over that candle-stick! 

14. Why don't I? Don't you see that I am the corporal? 

15. Don't, boys! Don't hurt the poor turtle! 

16. Bang! Bang! Fire crackers are jolly fun! 

17. Heave ho! Up with it, men! 

18. Boys, do you see how well George has done his work? 

19. Pig, pig, pig! Come here, little pig! Come and get some 

bread. 

The above expressions should be printed separately on suitable 
cards to be used as flash cards for rapid drill work. 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 127 



Five Little Rabbits 

Five little rabbits went out to walk, 
They liked to boast as well as talk. 
The first one said, "I hear a gun;" 
The next one said, "I will not run;" 
Another one said, "Let's stay in the shade;" 
The fourth one said, "I'm not afraid." 
Bang-bang went a gun! 
And they ran every one. 

Five rabbits may be cut out of card board and pasted on a chart. 
Some cotton may be used for their tails. 

The Five Kittens 

Five furry kittens waiting in the house. 
Softly! Softly! 

They think they hear a mouse; 
The white kitten says, "Be still!" 
The grey kitten says, "We will!" 
The brown kitten says, "Oh, where?" 
The striped kitten says, "Take care!" 
The black kitten says, "Right here!" 
"Squeak!" went the mouse. 
And they all ran under the house. 

Pansies 

There's something good about pansies 

That's worth your while to know; 
The more they are plucked and given away 

The more they are sure to grow. 

Henny Penny's Opinion 

"Henny Penny, I wish you'd lay 
An Easter egg in your nest to-day. 
Henny Penny, what do you say?" 
"Cut, cut, cut, Ka-da-cut! 
The very idea of a colored shell! 
I should die of shame if I laid one — well, 
When I lay an egg I never tell — 
Cut, cut, cut, Ka-da-cut!" 

A Secret 

"I know something, but I sha'n't tell, 
Cause the mother bird whispered it just to me, 
What she'd hidden away in the top of the tree! 
And by-and-by when the birdies are old — 
Oh! dear me; I've gone and told." 



128 RURAL EDUCATION 



Brindle Cow 

Our old brindle cow stands by the shed, 
And this is the way she shakes her head; 
Then the bell on her neck makes such a noise, 
It frightens some little girls and boys. 
Now look at her eyes so brown and kind, 
And a gentler cow we could not find. 
What is she good for? Why, don't you see? 
She gives us the milk we have for tea. 

Scaring Santa Claus 

Do you know what I'd like to do when Santa Claus comes knocking? 
I'd like to squeeze up a little, and hide behind my stocking, 
Then, when he opened his packet, I'd say "Boo!" just for fun, 
And maybe 'twould scare him so that he'd leave his presents and run! 
Oh! wouldn't that be fun! 

Three Little Owls 

Three little owls one cold winter day, 

Crept into a barn half full of hay; 

On the shingles, like bullets, rattled the hail, 

And the wind blew around with a mournful wail; 

It shook the doors till the owls cried, "Whoo-oo?" 

And the wind whistled back, "Yoo-oo." 

Blue Jay 

Oh, Blue Jay up in the maple tree, 

Shaking your throat with such bursts of glee; 

How'd you happen to be so blue? 

Did you steal a bit of the lake for your crest, 

And fasten blue violets into your vest? 

Tell me, I pray you, — tell me true. 

In many schools memory work is not required as much 
as it should be. Even though the child may not understand 
at the time all he is memorizing, these stored up treasures 
will become working capital some day. The First and 
Second Division students will find it easy to commit to 
memory. The list for the First Division suggests a poem for 
each month for the three years. The order can be arranged 
to suit the teacher. At the same rate only two thirds of 
the other two lists would need be selected for the Second 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 129 

and Third divisions. It is difficult to find so many classics 
in one series of books, but the reading sets and language 
books furnish most of them. The Williams' Choice Lit- 
erature Series contains many of those suggested. 

A few nursery rhymes are given, as it is sometimes dif- 
ficult for a teacher to find them. Many children will prob- 
ably know most of them before coming to school. So much 
the better, as they will be treading on familiar ground, 
and the foundation for language work will be laid. Teach 
the memory work to the whole division at once, and let 
them all recite at once, the teacher giving the selection 
with them at first for expression. Vary this by having a 
pupil stand in front and lead the recitation. Occasionally 
call on an individual for a selection. 

If it does not seem possible to have all these poems 
memorized, the teacher may select as many as can be 
learned, and the rest should be carefully read and studied. 
Every student has a right to part of the world's great 
literature, before leaving the elementary school. 

NURSERY CLASSICS 

Rock-a-bye Baby 

Rock-a-bye baby, on the tree top, 
When the wind blows, the cradle will rock. 
When the bough breaks, the cradle will fall. 
Down will come baby, bough, cradle and all. 

See-saw Margery Daw 

See-saw, Margery Daw, 
Johnny shall have a new master, 
He shall have but a penny a day, 
Because he won't work any faster. 

Jack Horner 

Little Jack Horner sat in a corner 
Eating a Christmas pie. 
He put in his thumb, and took out a plum, 
And said, "O, what a good boy am I!" 



130 RURAL EDUCATION 

Hickory, Dickory, Dock 

Hickory, dickory, dock, 
The mouse ran up the clock; 
The clock struck one, 
Down he did run. 
Hickory, dickory, dock. 

Little Miss Muffet 

Little Miss Muffet 

Sat on a tuffet, 

Eating curds and whey. 

Along came a spider, 

And sat down beside her, 

Which frightened Miss Muffet away. 

The Little Pigs 

This little pig went to market, 
This little pig stayed home. 
This little pig had roast beef, 
This little pig had none. 
This little pig cried, "Wee, wee," 
All the way home. 

Jack and Jill 

Jack and Jill went up the hill 
To fetch a pail of water. 
Jack fell down and broke his crown, 
And Jill came tumbling after. 

Pat-a-cake 

"Pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake, baker's man." 
"So I will, master, as fast as I can." 
"Pat it, and prick it, and mark it with T. 
Put it in the oven, for Tommy and me." 

Little Bo-peep 
Little Bo-peep has lost her sheep, 
And doesn't know where to find them. 
Let them alone. They will come home 
And bring their tails behind them. 

Tommy Tucker 

Little Tommy Tucker sings for his supper, 
What shall he eat? White bread and butter. 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 131 



A Song of Sixpence 

Sing a song of sixpence, 

A pocket full of rye. 
Four and twenty black birds, 

Baked in a pie. 
When the pie was opened 

The birds began to sing. 
Wasn't that a dainty dish 

To set before a king? 

Pussy Cat 

Pussy cat, pussy cat, 

Where have you been? 
I've been up to London 

To look at the queen. 
Pussy cat, pussy cat, 

What did you there? 
I frightened a little mouse 

Under her chair. 

Ding, Dong, Bell 

Ding, dong, bell ! Pussy's in the well. 
Who put her in? Little Tommy Green. 
Who pulled her out? Big John Stout. 
What a naughty boy was that, 
To drown poor pussy cat, 
Who never did him any harm, 
But killed the rats in father's barn! 

Old Mother Hubbard 

Old Mother Hubbard 
Went to the cupboard 

To get her poor dog a bone; 
But, when she came there, 
The cupboard was bare, 

And so the poor dog got none. 



CHAPTER XI 

WRITING, SPELLING, MUSIC AND ART 

WRITING 

In this age of typewriters and other machines to do 
the work formerly done by hand, it is sometimes said that 
there is not the need for writing that there used to be. 
There is a growing demand, however, for clerks, stenog- 
raphers and others who can write a plain, business hand. 
Writing is one of the "three RV that is again receiving, 
and rightly so, a great deal of attention. 

Vertical writing has come and gone. The day of the 
old time copy book has passed. In fact, the revolution 
in teaching writing is apparently over, with the victory on 
the side of the muscular movement. The copy book never 
produced good writing. Occasionally a good teacher of 
penmanship would put enough enthusiasm into the work 
to get individuality on the part of the students. More 
often, however, the pupil would follow the copy for his 
first line or two, and then use his own preceding line for the 
copy. This habit gave the poorest line at the bottom 
of the page, where the best should have been. 

Muscular movement writing always produces individ- 
uality and an easy movement. The fingers should not be- 
come cramped nor the arm tired after writing for a longer 
time than usual. It is the natural method. 

Proper position is a prerequisite to good movement. 
Students who fail to form a habit of correct position seldom 
become good writers. The pupil should sit facing the desk, 
with the feet squarely on the floor, the back straight and 
leaning slightly forward, shoulders up and head erect. 

132 



WRITING, SPELLING, MUSIC AND ART 133 

The forearm should rest lightly on the desk, the right elbow 
near the corner of the desk. The left hand holds the paper 
in the proper position. Thus it can be seen that the pupil 
sits at the right side of the desk, as far over on the seat 
as possible. The penholder should be held loosely in the 
fingers, the tip of the first finger being about one inch from 
the pen point, the thumb opposite and a little higher. The 
third and fourth fingers rest on the paper and slide along as 
the hand moves from left to right. The paper is placed 
at such an angle as will give the desired slant to the writ- 
ing when the pen is moving almost in an up and down direc- 
tion. A slant of eighteen or twenty degrees is about right. 

The writing materials should be good. Poor paper is 
a serious handicap. Uniform paper about eight and one 
half by eleven inches, a good holder, and a medium pen 
are suggested. Each student should have a blotter, of 
course, and a large envelope to hold the finished speci- 
mens and to keep them clean and in order. 

The Palmer Method of muscular writing is one of the 
best now used in business colleges and schools. A small, 
paper covered textbook may be obtained for the pupils. It 
is in no sense a copy book. Full directions for position and 
physical exercises for relaxing the muscles precede the les- 
sons in writing. Any teacher using this system is allowed 
a free correspondence course and should find no difficulty 
in becoming a good teacher of penmanship in a short time. 

There is some difference of opinion as to where to begin 
the use of the pen and ink. Some begin in the first year, 
some in the second and some in the third. In any event 
the student should have learned to use pen and ink before 
finishing the First Division. Most writing methods have 
cards for the primary students. The method referred to 
above has a small book for the children of the first year or 



134 RURAL EDUCATION 

two and preceding the work in the regular textbook. Stu- 
dents should be encouraged to practice outside the regular 
class work. Writing contests and small prizes or some 
other recognition for good work will stimulate interest. 

FIRST DIVISION 

Great care should be taken to have pupils get the cor- 
rect position. The position of the body and the arm move- 
ments should become habitual. "Make Haste Slowly" is 
a good motto to follow in beginning this work. After the 
proper position has been secured, and not until then, begin 
with the use of ovals, making very light lines and gradually 
working up to the required rate of speed. Each lesson 
should be preceded by physical exercises for relaxation of 
the muscles. A half-dozen things under position should be 
kept in mind by the teacher. They are the feet, back, 
arms, hands, paper and penholder. The last should be 
held in such a manner that it will point back of the right 
arm about half way between the shoulder and the elbow. 
Spaces should be marked off with dots on the paper. Plan 
to fill these spaces with just so many ovals or lines accord- 
ing to the exercise. At first the teacher should do the count- 
ing, but gradually the student should learn to do this for 
himself. Count numerically part of the time, but use words 
when they will be helpful, as, light, light, light, light, and 
close, close, close, close. Keep up the counting, and, at the 
same time, by the use of such words give directions. 

Blackboard work should be done, but not over-done. 
A good plan is to send about half of the class to the board 
while the other half do the same work at their seats. Have 
pupils draw three straight lines, free-hand, on about the 
same level as the eyes. Mark off spaces and fill the first 
one with up and down strokes and the second with ovals. 



WRITING, SPELLING, MUSIC AND ART 135 

Try to make eighty strokes in eight inches of board space, 
also the same number of ovals. When half of the writing 
period is up, have those at the seats exchange with those 
at the blackboard. About four hundred up and down 
strokes should be made in two minutes after a reasonable 
rate of speed has been required. Work for movement and 
speed at first. Get these, and the letter formations will take 
care of themselves a little later. By the beginning of the 
second year students should be able to write their names 
and a few simple words by means of the muscular move- 
ment. The exercises and drills in the textbook used should 
be carefully studied by the pupil before they are applied in 
the writing lesson. Students should be taught the letter 
formations and the writing of words systematically from the 
first. Some teachers get good work in drills, but fail totally 
in getting students to apply these to their writing. Do not 
make the mistake of expecting much written work from this 
division in their other subjects. It is a common fault among 
teachers to require too much written work. 

SECOND DIVISION 

Continue with the drills for position and movement and 
increase the speed. In this division special emphasis should 
be laid upon the application of movement to all the letter 
forms. This is the most difficult part of the teaching of 
penmanship, and can be obtained only by applying the drills 
used to the actual handwriting of the student. A failure is 
seldom made in the drill work; it is usually in the applica- 
tion. The drills in movement are merely aids in writing 
and must always be regarded as the means to an end but 
not the end. By the time the student finishes this division 
he should be able to use muscular movement in all of his 
written work. 



136 RURAL EDUCATION 

THIRD DIVISION 

Relaxation exercises and drills should be given for a min- 
ute or two before each written lesson. Occasionally send 
half of the entire school to the blackboard while the other 
half use pen and ink at their desks. Comparison of the same 
work will often stimulate interest and create a certain rivalry 
between the divisions of the school. Keep up the counting 
to develop speed and uniformity. The teacher should be 
able to illustrate all the writing lessons at the blackboard. 
Any new drill or its application must be illustrated. Do 
not be misled in thinking that the teacher can get results in 
something she herself can not do. It is very necessary that 
the teacher become entirely familiar with the manual of 
whatever writing system she may be using. If possible, 
ten or fifteen minutes a day should be spent on actual prac- 
tice before demonstrating the work at the blackboard. 

It is difficult to give any definite directions for just the 
amount of work to be covered in each division, as so much 
depends upon the length of time the pupils have been using 
muscular movement, upon the competency of the teacher, 
upon the ability of the class and upon the amount of time 
that can be devoted to the subject daily. If the method 
mentioned above is in use, the student should be encouraged 
to work for buttons offered as prizes for good work, and for 
the diplomas given when the student becomes proficient 
enough in his handwriting and has a working knowledge of 
the textbook in writing. 

SPELLING 

Spelling, unfortunately, has not enjoyed the popularity 
that it once had. In the good old times of our grand- 
parents the spelling match and the singing school were 
close rivals of the quilting party and the husking bee. It 



WRITING, SPELLING, MUSIC AND ART 137 

was indeed an honor to be the best speller. While spelling 
was useful in those days, it is a necessity now. There are 
undoubtedly more good spellers in the schools now than 
ever before, but there are also more poor spellers. 

Interest is the keynote. Spelling is drudgery to most 
students, if the lesson always consists of a list of written 
words. Learning to spell is largely a process of the memory. 
Some children are eye-minded. Such will get their spelling 
lesson best by studying the printed page and writing the 
lesson. Others are ear-minded. These will best get the 
lesson by spelling the words aloud and by hearing others 
spell in an oral recitation. This difference shows the neces- 
sity for both oral and written work. There would seem 
to be no excuse for the pupil or for the teacher who will 
allow a pupil to leave the elementary school unable to 
spell the words he uses in ordinary conversation. Many 
a boy or girl who could not spell in school goes into a place 
of business to work, and soon learns to spell there, because 
the position would otherwise be lost. The need is seen and 
the person becomes interested at once. It is doubtful 
whether interest can be created by keeping children after 
school every day, if they miss a word or two. Of course 
a good teacher is never guilty of this practice, but there 
are many others who are. Make the school work more like 
real business work. 

Simplified spelling has been receiving more or less atten- 
tion by educators and editors. The agitation has undoubt- 
edly done much good, but few definite results have yet been 
attained. While the Committee on Simplified Spelling 
made many sensible recommendations, many of the lead- 
ing publications do not yet use the new spelling, and few 
publishers feel that the matter is sufficiently settled to 
warrant their using the revised forms. It can, perhaps, 



138 RURAL EDUCATION 

hardly be expected that adults will change from the way 
they have been accustomed to spell. This matter should 
be taken up in the schools and all simplified spelling recog- 
nized by authorities should be taught there. 

Special devices are sometimes used for keeping up 
interest in spelling. An honor roll on which the names 
of the best spellers are placed at the end of each week or 
month is one of these devices. Encourage students and par- 
ents to inspect names on this roll. The old-fashioned lines 
for oral work, allowing students to go to the head of the 
class, is still interesting. It is always best to hold stu- 
dents responsible for observing mis-spelled words. For ex- 
ample, if the person at the head of the line misses a word, 
the teacher says nothing about it, but pronounces a new 
word to the next pupil. If this person notices the mistake 
of the first and spells it correctly, he takes his place at the 
head of the line and the third student spells the word pro- 
nounced by the teacher. If the second does not notice the 
mis-spelled word, the first person in the line that notices 
it and spells it correctly, takes his place at the "head." 
Sometimes a mis-spelled word will be overlooked by several 
students in the line and then spelled correctly by some one 
near the "foot," who goes ahead of the first one who mis- 
spelled the word. This makes the game interesting, even 
exciting at times. Students are always interested in 
"spelling down." They should be allowed to spell down 
as frequently as once a week, as an excellent means of con- 
ducting oral drills. A banner may be made and given to 
the division making the best average for the week. As 
soon as another division has a better average, it gets the 
banner. Spelling matches between the schools should be 
encouraged, letting a team of three or five of the best spel- 
lers in the school compete with a similar team from a neigh- 



WRITING, SPELLING, MUSIC AND ART 139 

boring school. If these matches are held in the evening, 
parents will have opportunity to be present. The schools 
could compete for the best specimens in writing at the 
same time, if desired. Such contests would be an excellent 
way of interesting the community. 

State contests in spelling are assisting in the spelling 
movement in some sections of the country. It was my 
privilege to act as one of the judges recently, in the Minne- 
sota State Contest where the best spellers representing 
about sixty counties competed for prizes offered by the 
State Fair Association. A written contest list of one hundred 
words was first given. Representative words were taken 
from a half-dozen spellers, no catch words being used. Those 
handing in perfect papers were required to write a new list, 
until one person had the highest score. Naturally each 
list of words was made a little harder than that which pre- 
ceded it. After the written work was over, there was held 
an old-fashioned oral spelling down contest which took 
about an hour and a half to "floor" the best speller. Be- 
fore the state meeting, preliminary contests had been 
held in the counties and the representative at the State 
Fair was the champion in his own county. 

A spelling book in the hands of a pupil is indispensable. 
Some teachers prefer to select their own spelling lists from 
other subjects. It is well to take words from the geog- 
raphy, history and reading lessons for supplementary work 
in spelling, but it is a waste of time not to use a spelling 
book. There are a few rules in every speller that the stu- 
dents should be required to memorize. It should be remem- 
bered, however, that spelling can not be learned by rule. 
It is a memory subject and as such should be emphasized 
during the memory age. Students should be taught how to 
study a spelling lesson. There will probably always be 



140 RURAL EDUCATION 

words in the list that some pupils can already spell. The 
student should check these words and spend no time on them. 

Dictation used to be given as a part of the work in spel- 
ling much more than it is at present. It is one of the best 
ways of correlating spelling with language. Capital letters 
and punctuation as well as the spelling are emphasized in 
dictation. Suitable selections may be taken from the read- 
ing lessons, if there are not enough in the spelling books. 

Dictionary work should always be a part of the course 
in spelling. In connection, a definite time should be set 
aside for learning the use of the dictionary. Students 
often waste time looking up a word, because they can 
not use the dictionary to good advantage. A little pam- 
phlet "The Dictionary Habit" by Cody, is excellent for 
such study and may be obtained free from the publishers 
of Webster's Dictionary. A pamphlet should be secured 
for each student of the Second Division. Diacritical marks, 
prefixes, suffixes and root words, should all be given attention 
in connection with the language lessons. 

Three divisions are sufficient into which to divide the 
entire school for the work in spelling. I have seen eight 
spelling classes in a rural school where three would have 
been plenty. The first year students should not have any 
spelling, the next two may be combined for the First Divi- 
sion. The four and five-year students will constitute the 
Second Division and the others the Third Division. 
There should be but the one written lesson for all three 
divisions. If the lesson averages ten words for each divi- 
sion, a period of ten minutes is plenty for the spelling reci- 
tation. The lesson may be conducted as follows: The 
teacher pronounces a word for the First Division. The 
next word pronounced is for the Second Division and the 
third word is for the Third Division. By this time the 



WRITING, SPELLING, MUSIC AND ART 141 

First Division word has been written and a new word can 
be pronounced. The Second and Third Divisions' words 
follow in order. In this way all thirty words have been 
given to the three classes in the same length of time it ordi- 
narily takes to conduct one spelling lesson. A teacher with 
seven or eight grades of students must look for special 
devices such as this to save time. 

FIRST DIVISION 

No spelling books should be used. Lists of words may 
be selected from the reading classes and placed on the 
board. Do not make the mistake of giving too many 
words. Three new words learned each day will produce a 
list of over five hundred words learned during the year. 
Enough review words may be given each day to make the 
total number ten, if this is desirable. When the written work 
is being done, see that the students write to the best of 
their ability. 

SECOND DIVISION 

Spelling tablets for the written work should be used in 
both the Second and Third Divisions. See that these tablets 
are uniform. Sheets should not be torn off after the written 
lesson, but should be saved for oral review. An oral spell- 
ing period of twenty minutes once a week is provided in the 
suggested program. The words from several written les- 
sons can be used at this time. Any good speller may be 
used in this division and the work followed in the order 
given. Begin the use of the dictionary. Give supple- 
mentary spelling words from other lessons and continue by 
assigning lessons from the spelling book three times a week 
and supplementary words twice a week. 



142 RURAL EDUCATION 

THIRD DIVISION 

Any spelling book may be used, beginning with work 
for the sixth year and completing the text. A business 
speller similiar to those used in business colleges is prefer- 
able to the ordinary grade speller for this division. Such 
a book is complete in itself and gives only such words as 
are used in ordinary business. More emphasis is laid on 
learning rules of spelling, the derivation of words and dic- 
tation. Try to get students of this division to take pride 
in perfect spelling lessons. They should realize that, if they 
do not learn spelling correctly before finishing the common 
school, they will probably always be poor spellers. The 
contests with neighboring schools and the county and 
state contests referred to above should be of interest to 
these honor students. 

MUSIC 

The course in music is offered for those who desire to 
teach this subject in the rural schools. It is sometimes 
thought to be almost impossible to get satisfactory results 
in music without a special teacher. This idea is only par- 
tially true. Music is being taught with excellent results 
in some country schools, where the teacher has a working 
knowledge of music and is enthusiastic over it. If music 
is not taught as a regular subject, then rote songs should 
be given for morning exercises, as the children should be 
encouraged to sing. On the other hand, it is a mistake to 
teach rote songs, if they are learning to read notes. Good 
music reading, like other reading, can be acquired only by 
putting into practice the principles learned. 

The mechanics of music can be made even more inter- 
esting than the mechanics of reading or language. The 
most successful of the special devices for teaching music to 



WRITING, SPELLING, MUSIC AND ART 



143 



young children that has come within the observation of 
the author is the Congdon series. Each child is furnished 
with a desk chart and disks. The chart is merely a narrow 
piece of cardboard containing a staff. The small, black 
disks are used at first to locate the lines and spaces as called 
for by the teacher. Later, they are to be used as notes 
and placed as directed. As soon as one chart is finished 
another is taken up. 




Figure 10. 



Teaching music to first year students by the note method, showing 
the charts and disks. 



A serious mistake often made in teaching music is to 
have all the pupils sing together. Just as concert reading 
in English is wise occasionally, so chorus singing is desir- 
able; but the student will learn to sing, as he learns to 
read, only by individual work. This will seem hard at 
first, but, if the teacher is both insistent and persistent, the 
child will soon think no more of singing alone than he 
thinks of reading alone. Good chorus work can come only 
from good individual work. 



144 RURAL EDUCATION 

The scales should be taught with the mechanical work 
of the charts, singing downward first. Have both class 
and individual singing. An interesting way to teach the 
scales is by scale songs. That is, starting with the tone of 
upper "do," sing the words and syllables of the scale song 
to lower "do" which will be the end of the first line. Re- 
turn in the same manner, from lower to upper, using the 
words of the second line. Often before they realize it, 
children, who think they cannot sing the scales, have them 
learned by using the scale songs. A few are here suggested. 
The teacher can add to the list for variety. 

Scale Songs 

Hear the school bell call us to-day. 
"Come, O come!" now it seems to say. 

Swing-ing high, swing-ing to and fro, 
High up, up in the air I go. 

Thanks-giving day will soon be here; 
It comes around but once a year. 

If I could only have my way, 

We'd have Thanks-giv-ing ev-ry day. 

Birdies in Winter must be fed; 
Let the children scatter their bread. 

Snow flakes falling, snow birds calling, 
"Wint-er is here." 
(do, mi, sol, do.) 

Monotones are largely imaginary. "Out-of -tunes" are 
frequent, especially in lower grade pupils or those who have 
not studied music. Probably only two or three real mono- 
tones will be found in two or three hundred children, but 
more than half of a room may not be able to carry a tune, 
— "out-of-tunes." The teacher must test each child at the 
first of the year to determine where he should sit for music. 



WRITING, SPELLING, MUSIC AND ART 145 

"Out-of -tunes" can usually be corrected in a short time, and 
even monotones can always be cured in time. 

The whole note, half note, and quarter note should be 
taught during the first part of the course. As soon as the 
scales are learned, the child makes "pictures" of the tones 
and calls them notes. Make all the mechanical work play 
at first. 

A music primer should be introduced the second part of 
the first year, and a series of music readers follow. The 
pupils are held responsible for counting the time from the 
first. Blackboard and written seat work should accompany 
the other work. 

The school may be divided into three divisions for the 
work in music as in the other subjects. After songs have 
been learned by note by the advanced divisions, they may 
be sung by the entire school, the First Division children learn- 
ing them by note. The work suggested for each division 
follows : 

FIRST DIVISION 

Material Used: Congdon's key desk charts and disks; 
the "Congdon Primer Number One," some paper with lines 
and spaces for written work and one or two simple music 
readers for supplementary work. 

Time for Recitation: This will depend upon the amount 
of time that can be profitably given to music in a small 
school where all grades of work are not represented. More 
time may be found for such work as music and drawing than 
in a large school. If from ten to fifteen minutes a day, twice 
a week, can be devoted to the work, it will be well worth 
while to introduce music. 

Seating the Pupils: Always place the monotones and 
"out-of-tunes" in the front seats. Those who can cany the 



146 R URAL EDUCA TION 

tune should be seated in the rear. The students in the front 
seats will not disturb those who can sing, and they will be 
encouraged by hearing the others who are back of them. 

Voices: Keep the voices soft and the tones sweet. Do 
not allow any loud singing or one or two students to be 
heard above all the others. 

Order of Presentation of the Work: When the subject 
is introduced all of the First Division pupils should study 
the charts and disks. Teach the child to place a disk at the 
call of the first line, second line, etc., then, using the same 
chart, the spaces may be called in the same manner and the 
disks placed. After the lines and spaces have been learned 
in this way, it is well to mix them and call either lines Or 
spaces. It will be found that students are very fond of this 
kind of work and the mechanics of music become simple. 
The scales should next be taught, beginning with upper "do" 
and singing downward at first. The scale songs suggested 
above should be used in teaching scales. Have individual 
singing as well as class singing. 

Using chart number two, teach the use of the clef sign. 
Use "key of F" chart and ask the pupils to tell the differ- 
ence. Have a child go to the board and draw the flat sign. 
Ask another child to tell where "do" is found on this chart. 
Place a staff on the board and ask the pupil to draw a disk 
in the "do" place. Do not allow students to call the disks 
"notes." Teach intervals by "rote" and have pupils place 
the disk and sing after the teacher. When the tonic chord 
has been learned, the pupils should be required to sing alone. 
The child may be asked to go to the board and point to tones 
on the staff and sing both tones and scale songs. While one 
child is at the board doing this, those at their seats may 
place the disks on the desk charts. Proceed in this manner 
through several scales. The scale songs may be varied by 



WRITING, SPELLING, MUSIC AND ART 147 

singing in "long tones." Require the pupils to beat four 
times with the pointer finger of the right hand; then use 
"half tones" and "quarter tones." Make pictures of these 
tones and call the pictures "notes." Use numerous scale 
songs. Invent some to suit the day on which the lesson is 
given. The children will feel as if they are playing a game; 
but, if the work is properly taught, they will be mastering 
the mechanics of music that the older student usually finds 
so hard and distasteful. 

After about a half a year of work as outlined above, the 
student should be ready for a music primer. Have the 
books laid flat open on the desk and have the pointer finger 
of the right hand ready to beat the time. Begin each song 
by individual work. Start with the child in the back seat 
and at the same time have the pupil in front of him stand 
and be ready to sing when the teacher says "next." 

Make no comment on the singing; but, when one phrase 
has been sung correctly, have the entire class sing. Say 
nothing about the time signature, unless a pupil notices it. 
In that case it may be explained. Continue with the work 
from the primer for the balance of the school year. By the 
end of the first year after music has been introduced into 
the schools, the children should know the "pictures" of the 
whole note, half note, and the quarter note and how many 
beats for each. The outline just given is that usually 
covered during the first year in a graded school. It should 
constitute the work of the First Division for the first year. 

The second year work of the First Division should begin 
with a review of the mechanics of the first year. The beat- 
ing of time should be carefully worked out. Do not allow 
the least inaccuracy in time. Tones will probably not be 
perfect at first, the class may be out of tone, but they need 
not be out of time. Every pupil probably feels rhythm, 



148 RURAL EDUCATION 

but he must be taught to see it. It is well to call attention 
to the new steps, but ask pupils to show them to you. More 
written work should be done at the board and seats. Do 
not allow students to take books to the board, as the work 
there should be either from memory or original. The teach- 
er should work hard with the a out-of-tunes" and "mono- 
tones." Have them sing alone frequently, and then let 
other children who can carry the tune assist. In order to 
make the students independent, the teacher should do as 
little singing during the music recitation as possible. At 
the morning exercises, however, the teacher should lead. 

Individual singing should be emphasized during the 
latter part of the course for the First Division. At 
least a half of the music period should be devoted to this. 
The teacher should work for accuracy and pure tones. 
Dictation exercises in music writing may be given once 

a week. 

SECOND DIVISION 

If the students of this division have not studied music, 
they must first take up the work as outlined for the First 
Division. In fact, the entire school can take this work 
together when music is first introduced. As the mechan- 
ics should have been learned in the First Division, most of 
the time of the Second Division can be given to two and 
three part singing as outlined in any good music series. 
Aim to establish a perfect knowledge of note values and in- 
tervals. Carefully test each voice before assigning a pupil 
to his part in the part singing. Use the same plan in having 
the reading and singing done as in the First Division, 
that is, begin with the students in the back seats. Four 
pupils will be standing at once, two singing and the other 
two ready to sing. When three part work is taken up, 
three will sing and three will be standing ready to sing. 



WRITING, SPELLING, MUSIC AND ART 149 

The real names of lines and spaces may be taught in this 
division, as well as the keys by their proper names. Dic- 
tation exercises and simple composition should be required. 
All monotones can very probably be cured before they reach 
this division, and will give little further concern. 

THIRD DIVISION 

Two and three part singing from the music books should 
be emphasized, if the students are old enough. Even four 
part work may be studied. If there are a few boys four- 
teen or fifteen years old, they will enjoy learning to sing 
the bass. Some supplementary leaflets and music books 
should be obtained for this division, if possible. Encour- 
age part singing at morning exercises, school programs 
and special entertainments held occasionally in the evening. 

A mark for music should be given the student, the 
same as for any other subject. This will encourage him 
and the parent will be able to know what progress is being 
made, as the mark will be seen when the report card is 
signed. Finally, the success of a course in music in the 
rural schools will depend upon the enthusiasm and abil- 
ity of the teacher. 

ART 

The fact that few rural teachers are artists is no reason 
why the pupils cannot be given sufficient instruction in 
art to enable them to appreciate aesthetics. If a full 
program will not permit regular class work, much can 
be done incidently and by correlation with other lessons. 

Beauty is universal. It is always a unit and is seen 
with an unfocused eye, and the test of beauty is to ignore 
its parts and see the whole. Parts of a landscape should 
be studied technically and separately, but later the stu- 



150 RURAL EDUCATION 

dent must learn to unify and see the entire scene within 
the field of vision. He becomes big when he can lose the 
parts and see the unit. Young children may be taught 
many things in linear perspective by studying pictures 
containing roads, fences, telegraph poles, etc. They can 
also readily be taught that objects change in the loss of 
character in increased distance. Older pupils will learn 
the atmospheric changes in color by increased distance. 

Outdoor work in spring and fall is best. Drawings of 
a house, barn, shed, haystack, corncrib, hoghouse, tree, or 
a simple landscape may be presented once a week, and 
part of a class period used for criticism. This should be 
constructive, so the pupils will not be offended, but rather 
glad to find wherein they lack power. 

Silhouettes of plants behind the curtain, and brush 
silhouettes of poses are good. One basis of interest is to 
have things original, as subjects for drawing, and students 
like to make pose drawings. A mistake is sometimes 
made in allowing primary students to do too much pencil 
work. They seem to be able to work only in sharp outlines 
and get into a bad habit from which it is hard to break away. 
Things are seen in mass — in light and shade, and pencil 
work is not advised until this work can be done. 

Outlines may be used in drawing, but should be so light 
as to be only a guide, and, when the drawing is completed, 
the outline should become entirely absorbed in the mass 
without use of the eraser. A foundation for a drawing is 
important and the pupil must throw some leading lines 
and then judge carefully his ratios and proportions before 
proceeding with his work. 

Color is the first appeal to the child. Animal life is 
next, and action follows. These interests must be taken into 
consideration in teaching art. Begin with a study of color 



WRITING, SPELLING, MUSIC AND ART 151 

with disks and charts. The color wheel will show that 
green is two colors, purple two colors, and orange two 
colors. While the student cannot be taken far into the 
triad of color, he can be shown that brown is a union of red 
and blue and yellow. For the study of light and shade 
the pupils should have individual sets of the cube, sphere, 
pyramid, cone and cylinder on the desks. 

Copies of the great masters should be carefully graded 
from the animal pictures of Landseer and Bonheur to the 
classics of Rome. Perry prints are available at one cent 
and up. These copies properly graded will give new stud- 
ies for each division. Aesthetics of art may be taught 
up to about the seventh year, when students become more 
practical. They should then be given the application 
of art to industrial life. For the boys mechanical drawing 
and manual training serve this purpose, while the girls 
apply art to their home economics. 

An annual exhibit of the work will interest the parents 
in art. They must be made to realize that art has more 
than a commercial side. They cannot judge the value of 
art by what is seen at the finger tips. Day by day each 
lesson implants its spirit, until, in time, we have art as a 
part of the character of the child, redeeming his life from 
the commonplace and the sordid. The child unconscious- 
ly becomes refined in spirit and is sensitive to beauty and 
harmony while yet poor in expression with any medium. 

GENERAL OUTLINE 

First Division: Study of color by cards, wheels, etc. 
Third dimension work — form emphasized. Hence clay is the 
best medium for expression. Modeling should be done from 
memory as well as from objects. Hard charcoal work 
follows modeling, and this is followed by colored crayons. 



152 RURAL EDUCATION 

Second Division: Review work of the First Division, 
adding wood models as basis for forms, and Eagle Drafting 
Pencils. Also brush and pan of sepia. Water colors are 
often used too soon. 

Third Division: Add to the previous supplies a three 
colored box. A systematic study of colored pictures 
and atmospheric colors should be conducted. Finally, 
the compass and mechanical drawing, and the application 
of art to industry. 



CHAPTER XII 

HISTORY AND CIVICS 
HISTORY 

In some schools history is regarded as a girl's subject, 
because the boys find it distasteful. This idea is unfortu- 
nate, indeed, as history is a ver}^ important part of the 
elementary course. The kind of history that makes a 
knowledge of dates and battles the important thing, or 
that begins with Columbus each year and ends wherever 
the class happens to be reciting at the end of the year, is 
certainly not worth while. But history that helps the student 
to understand the present and estimate the future, by the 
interpretation of the past, is a vitalizing force. 

The aim of history teaching is not to cram the mind 
with dates and facts. Neither is it to teach patriotism in 
the sense in which that word is often used. It is to teach 
true patriotism, the patriotism that puts right and honor 
above might and dishonor. History teaches morals in 
the individual and the nation. It is socializing in that it 
should make the individual less selfish and more cosmopoli- 
tan and altruistic. In this connection, McMurry, in his 
''Special Method in History," says "It is often said that 
one aim of history is to teach patriotism. It might be 
better said that history should aim to clarify and purify 
the sentiment of patriotism. The crude feeling of patriot- 
ism is very strong and demonstrative in this country, and 
it is a reality, not a boast nor a dream. It greatly needs to 
be purified. Children should be made more intelligent 
about our country and more sensitive to its true honor and 

153 



154 RURAL EDUCATION 

dignity. This result is attainable by the schools, because 
the lives, words and deeds of the best patriotic Americans 
are easily within the reach of teachers and children. Dis- 
interested American patriots, such as Franklin, Washing- 
ton, Lincoln, Emerson, Bryant, Lowell and many others of 
the same stamp, have given unmistakable evidence in 
their works and words that they fully appreciated that 
higher destiny toward which America seems to be moving. 
True patriotism, by common consent, does not consist in 
magnifying our own country at the expense of England, 
the North at the expense of the South, or America right 
or wrong at the expense of the world. To' cultivate fair- 
mindedness and honesty, to see clearly both sides of an 
historical controversy, is, in this respect, the true standard 
of history study. Americans have enough to be proud of 
without belittling those who chance to be their opponents, 
and without extravagant boasting as to their own deserts. 
Among other things we can well afford to understand our 
own mistakes and weaknesses, and to accept with fair- 
mindedness and honesty some of the superior excellences 
and institutions of other countries, as of France, or Eng- 
land, or Germany. A course of study in history must 
necessarily include much historical material from other 
countries, and many noble characters not American. We 
have no end of instructive lessons to learn from Europe. 
True liberality and the broad mental balance and charity 
which go with it are things of slow growth, but in the study 
of history it is the paramount obligation of the teacher to 
cultivate these dispositions both in himself and in the 
children." 

Biography is the agency through which history, in the 
lower and intermediate grades, should teach types of men 
and women that are worthy of emulation, and who have 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 155 

helped to make their countries great. What child will 
not profit by the stories of the lives of Washington, Lin- 
coln, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Longfellow, Whittier, Daniel 
Boone and others in this country, as well as a similar list 
of persons who have influenced the development of other 
nations? Taking King Alfred as a type for European 
history, it has been said of him: "No other man on record 
has ever so thoroughly united all the virtues both of ruler 
and of the private man. A saint without superstition, a 
scholar without boast, a warrior whose wars were fought in 
defense of his own country, a conqueror whose laurels were 
never stained by cruelty, a prince never cast down by ad- 
versity, never lifted up to insolence in the hour of triumph 
— there is no other name in history to compare with his." 

The mental discipline derived from a study of history 
can hardly be overestimated. While probably not as 
exact as mathematical calculations, the student reaches 
more or less definite conclusions after- studying an event in 
history from its various aspects. For instance, if the 
colonies were justified in separating from the mother coun- 
try, why was the South not justified in seceding from the 
Union? After the student has studied both of these critical 
periods in our history, he is in a position to weigh the facts 
carefully and come to his own conclusions. 

Chronology is unimportant and should be taught only 
in advanced classes. It will kill the spirit of the subject 
in the lower division work. Dates have usually been over- 
done. A dozen or fifteen for the entire elementary course 
in history are sufficient. Neither is it necessary to re- 
quire the children to memorize the administrations of the 
presidents in order, giving five or any other stated number 
of events that occurred during the office of each. Some 
administrations are noted for more than that number of 



156 RURAL EDUCATION 

important events, while others have none that ought to be 
studied in the elementary school. 

Supplementary reading in history is necessary to get a 
broad view of the subject. As well as a few good books for 
special reference, the library should afford a list of historical 
novels of the best grade. Students should be required to 
read a few of these as part of the course in history, and 
encouraged to read many more for general culture. If the 
teacher herself has formed the reading habit, she will have 
no difficulty in interesting the pupils. A list of one hundred 
references in history, selected from a much larger number 
in a library, is given at the end of the chapter. The teacher 
can select from the list when ordering library books for 
the school. 

European history stories should precede the formal 
study of American history. This plan is now generally 
adopted. The Committee of Eight recognizes a few lines 
of development in the world's history that should be studied 
in order to better understand our own history. Authori- 
ties differ as to the location of the "cradle of civilization," 
but it was probably somewhere in the valleys of south- 
eastern Asia. From there this early type of civilization 
spread to western Asia among the Phoenicians and Greeks. 
They established colonies in southern Italy and Greece. 
The Roman conquest followed. Then came the invasion 
of central Europe by the barbarians from the East, and the 
beginning of the modern nations of that continent. These 
conquests expanded the new civilization to the shores of 
the Atlantic. The next great westward movement was to 
cross the ocean and colonize the New World. From this 
trend of civilization it can be seen that the American sage's 
advice to young men to "Go West" was only the echo of 
the cry of the ages. 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 157 

Each of the ancient and medieval nations contributed 
something to civilization. That contribution has, to a 
greater or less extent, affected the present civilization of 
America. A knowledge of what each nation gave to the 
world is, therefore, necessary to understand our own history. 
In a word, we are wont to think of religion in connection 
with the Hebrews; of commerce, with the Phoenicians; of 
art, with the Greeks; of law, with the Romans; and of vigor 
with the barbarians. All of these peoples, and more, have 
had a tremendous influence on modern civilization. The 
foreigner landing on our shores brings with him the tradi- 
tions and customs of the mother country. Many of these 
are worth preserving in the adopted country. 

Geography and history are so closely related that they 
cannot be taught separately. The early explorers first 
taught the true shape of the earth. They discovered new 
lands and seas and were truly geographers. A knowledge 
of geography is absolutely essential to a complete un- 
derstanding of history. Maps, globes and special charts 
should frequently be used in the history class. Slated 
cloth charts with outline maps are inexpensive and good 
for this work. 

Heroes and hero worship in history teaching' have been 
confined too largely to military achievements. The events 
connected with Marathon, Thermopylae, Quebec, Trafal- 
gar, Waterloo and Manila Bay are striking examples. It is 
not the courage of a Napoleon nor the patriotism of a Bis- 
marck that we should idolize, but rather that of the brave 
men who stepped aside to rescue the women and children 
of the Titanic, and that of the physician who willingly 
sacrificed himself that yellow fever might be conquered. 
Such patriotism is not merely national but universal; not 
selfish, but philanthropic. 



158 RURAL EDUCATION 

The peace movement of recent years has been a worthy 
one. But neither peace medals nor Hague conferences 
could prevent the most stupendous catastrophe in history 
— the wholesale murdering of civilized people and the bank- 
rupting of nations. The teacher, if she uses her oppor- 
tunity in the schoolroom, is a mightier force for peace than 
all the statesmen the world has ever seen. 

The Three Division plan is carried out in history as in 
other subjects for the rural school. The First Division 
work is correlated with language, geography and reading, 
and there is no history recitation period. The stories are 
told or read by the teacher and reproduced by the children. 
In the Second Division, the story method is continued, but 
easy historical readers should be introduced. The formal 
study of history from the textbook is left for the work of 
the Third Division, and at least one half of the time of the 
Second Division should be given to a study of general his- 
tory stories. The program allows for one year of formal 
textbook work in United States History to be given in 
either the sixth or seventh year, alternating with geography. 
It may be argued that one year of history is not sufficient, 
but it is doubtful if more can be given in a rural school and 
leave sufficient time for the other subjects. If a child has 
been given history stories for three years, as suggested for 
the First Division work, and has then continued to study 
both American and European history stories from his- 
torical readers for two years more, he should have a back- 
ground that will make the one year of formal history study 
more valuable than several years according to the old plan. 
Teaching history from the same book for two or three years 
and requiring the student to give topics from memory is 
worse than a waste of time. This is drudgery that creates 
distaste and defeats its very purpose. 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 159 

FIRST DIVISION 

The work suggested under this division can be given 
during the morning exercises, at the general period or 
correlated with the language and reading lessons. The 
teacher should have several good reference books of history 
stories in the library. The -stories should be carefully 
selected and told by the teacher to the class. Fables, 
fairy tales, and myths have their place in awakening the 
imagination. Stories of child life, and present types of 
primitive life, should be told, to give a better understand- 
ing of developed civilization. The hunter, trapper, shepherd 
and Indian, with the associations that belong to each, will 
afford excellent illustrations. The child should read and 
learn the suitable practical literature. He should know 
the story of our flag and be able to give the salute. Anni- 
versaries such as Thanksgiving, Christmas, Washington's 
and Lincoln's birthdays, the Fourth of July and others 
should be observed. It is not necessary to present the 
stories for this division in chronological order. It is often 
best not to do so. Neither should they be confined to 
American history stories. Somewhere in his development 
the child is entitled to know some of the great characters 
in literature and history, and, as many children do not 
obtain this information at home, the school should supply 
it. The following stories are suggested: Arachne, Pan- 
dora, Ulysses, Bag of Winds, Jason and the Golden Fleece, 
Ceres, Prometheus, Montezuma, Alladin, Theseus, Leoni- 
das, Siegfried, Hercules, Abraham, Joseph, David, Jesus, 
Romulus, Julius Caesar, Alfred the Great, Bruce, Wallace, 
King Arthur, Washington, James Watt, Robert Fulton, 
Lincoln and others. The teacher should consult "How to 
Teach Stories to the Child" by Sarah Cone Bryant, "Nor- 
thern Land Heroes" by Holbrook and "Stories of Great 



160 RURAL EDUCATION 

Americans" by Eggleston. It is not expected that all of 
these stories will be given during any one year, but there 
will be time to have most of them during the three years of 
the First Division work. 

SECOND DIVISION 

The classes of this division recite together, and it is well 
to begin each year of the two years' work with some of the 
stories listed under the First Division, as the pupils will 
hardly be familiar with all of them. A set of historical 
readers should be introduced during the early part of the 
course. During the second year the work covered should 
be stories of the American history as given in any of the 
up-to-date historical readers, for example, "The Pioneer 
History Series" by McMurry or "The Story of our Country" 
by Elson and MacMullan. The first set consists of three 
books: the "Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley," "Pioneers 
of Land and Sea" and "Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains." 
The student should begin with the book for the section of 
the country in which he lives. The second set is a two book 
series the first of which gives the story of our national his- 
tory to the close of the Revolutionary War and the second 
down to the present time. The other year's work of the 
Second Division may continue in the study of stories from 
our own history, but the last half year should be devoted 
to general history stories. "An Introductory American 
History" by Bourne and Benton and "The History of the 
Old World" by Elson and MacMullan are good for this 
work, although they are difficult for fifth-year students. 
A study of that part of European history that has a direct 
bearing upon American history is essential, if the child is 
to understand cause and effect in this subject. They are 
surely more important than dates and isolated facts. For 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 161 

example, if the student is to get a correct viewpoint of the 
French and Indian wars, he must understand something of 
the economic and political conditions in France for a century 
or more before the French Revolution, that he may under- 
stand why that nation was willing to struggle to the finish 
with England for possessions in the New World. 

The general history work may be given throughout the 
course during the two years of this division, if that plan 
seems better than to devote a half year to European his- 
tory separately. The above suggestions regarding work 
that should precede the study of the French and Indian 
wars will illustrate how the work may be conducted. Simi- 
larly, before the study of the Revolutionary War, the revolu- 
tions in England, France and other countries should be 
discussed. It will then be seen that the American struggle 
was merely a part of a great world-wide movement for inde- 
pendence from arbitrary rulers. 

The work of the Second Division, then, is to give a 
general foundation for the year of formal history in the 
Third Division. 

THIRD DIVISION 

One year of formal history from any good textbook 
should be given. It is already understood that history, is 
to alternate with geography. That is, history will be offered 
one year to the pupils of the sixth and seventh grade*; and 
geography the next year, the classes being combined each 
year. If it seems best to have a half year of geography and 
a half year of history each year, that plan may be followed 
with the course suggested here. The first year of the 
Second Division work should have laid a good foundation 
for the early part of American history. It would, therefore, 
seem best to begin the Third Division work with the Ameri- 



162 RURAL EDUCATION 

can Revolution and spend most of the year on history since 
that time, correlating whatever European history is neces- 
sary for an interpretation of our own. The last few weeks 
of the year may be spent on a review of the period of dis- 
covery and exploration. Maps, globes and historical charts 
should be used freely in presenting the daily lessons. The 
students should be encouraged to draw suitable books from 
the library to supplement the class work. See the lists of 
history references. Some teachers are able to inculcate the 
reading habit; others are not. Students will often get more 
history from the reference books, specially in the advanced 
classes, than they will get from the text. History may be 
made just as interesting to boys as to girls. 

U. S. HISTORY REFERENCE 

I. Discovery and Exploration 

The Deerslayer — Cooper Indian History for Young People 
The Last of the Mohicans — — Drake 

Cooper How Our Grandfathers Lived — 

The Pathfinder — Cooper Hart 

The Pioneer — Cooper Wigwam Stories — Judd 

The Pilot — Cooper Flamingo Feather — Munroe 

The Prairie — Cooper Conquest of Peru — Pratt 

The Spy — Cooper Conquest of Mexico — Prescott 

II. Colonization and Settlement 

Jhf Colonies— Thwaites A Tale of Acadia— D. E. Miller 

Old Virginia and Her Neighbors— Home Life in Colonial Days— 

Fiske Earle 

The Making of New England— In Old Virginia— Page 

« Dr f- k 1 e , r, Stories of Colonial Children— 

Standish of Standish — Austin Pratt 
Heroes of Middle West (French)— 

Catherwood 

III. Revolutionary Age 

For King or Country— Barnes Richard Carvel— Churchill 

A Girl of 76— Blanchard Daughter of the Revolution— 

The French Revolution— Carlyle Coffin 

Story of Joan of Arc, for boys and Brave Little Holland and What 
girls— Carpenter She Taught Us— Griffis 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 



163 



III. Revolutionary Age — Continued 



Washington and his Country — 

Irving & Fiske 
Benjamin Franklin — Morse 
Green Mountain Boys — Thompson 
The Boys of Old Monmouth— 

Tomlinson 



The Boston Tea Party — Watson 
Midshipman Paulding — Seawell 
Four Great Americans — Baldwin. 
Four American Naval Heroes — 

Beebe 
Four American Patriots — Burton. 



IV. Critical Period 



Formation of the Union — Hart 
Building the Nation — Coffin 
Captain Sam (1814) — Eggleston 
Tecumseh — Eggleston 



Eighty Years of Union — Schouler 
Louisiana Purchase — Winship & 
Wallace 



V. Mexican and Civil War 



The Life of Col. David Crockett 
—Ellis 

Giant of Three Wars — Barnes 

The Rifle Rangers — Reid 

The Civil War and the Constitu- 
tion — Burgess 

A Bird's Eye View of our Civil 
War — Dodge 

A Perfect Tribute — Andrews" 

Uncle Tom's Cabin — Stowe 



The Crisis— Churchill 

Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come 

—Fox 
Battle Ground — Glascow 
With Lee in Virginia — Henty 
A Broken Sword — King 
Two Little Confederates — Page 
Three Scouts — Trowbridge 
The Drummer Boy — Trowbridge 
Cudjo's Cave — Trowbridge 



VI. Reconstruction 



Reconstruction and Constitution 

— Burgess 
The Clansman (Klu Klux Klan) 

— Dixon 
The Leopard's Spots — Dixon 



Working with the Hands — Wash- 
ington 
Up from Slavery — Washington 
Red Rock — Page 



VII. Rocky Mountains and the West 



Hunting the Grizzly — Roosevelt 

Hunting Trips of a Ranchman — 
Roosevelt 

The Winning of the West — Roose- 
velt 

Ramona — Jackson 

The Childhood of Ji Ship (The 
O jib way) — Jenks 

Chumley's Post. (A story of 
Pawnee Trail) — Stoddard 



The Gentleman from Indiana — 
Tarkington 

Roughing It — Mark Twain 

Black Rock — Connor 

The Sky Pilot— Connor 

Hoosier School Master — Eggles- 
ton 

Last of the Flatboats — Eggleston 

Luck of Roaring Camp — Harte 

Story of a Cowboy — Hough 



164 RURAL EDUCATION 

VIII. Spanish American War and Acquisitions 

The Story of Our War with Spain Little Journeys to Hawaii and 
— Brooks Philippines — George 

The Rescue of Cuba — Draper Ba-Long-Long (Igorot Boy) — 

Little Journeys to Cuba and Jenks 

Porto Rico — George Our Little Philippine Cousin — 

Wade 

IX. Miscellaneous 

Historic Girls— Brooks Twenty Famous Naval Battles- 
Strange Stories from History for Rawson 

Young People — Eggleston The Making of an American — Riis 

Hero Tales from American His- Master of Strong Hearts — Brooks 

tory — Lodge & Roosevelt 

X. General History 

Three Greek Children — Church Thaddeus of Warsaw — Porter 

In the Brave Days of Old (James Marie Antoinette — Abbott 

I)— Hall By Order of the King— Hugo 

Lorna Doone — Blackmore Every Inch a King — Sawyer 

TRAINING FOR CITIZENSHIP 

An elementary course in civics should be given in every 
rural school, as a majority of the country boys and girls 
will never get this training anywhere if not in their home 
school. The course must be simple, but broad enough to 
familiarize the student with such local forms of government 
as he will need to know as a future citizen. Probably the 
best place to teach this subject is in connection with the 
history. One period a week can be given to civics in each 
of the history classes, or, if it seems better, parts of the his- 
tory periods can be used and the civics taught incidentally. 
Supplementary readers pertaining to citizenship can be read 
in the advanced division. Talks by the teacher at the morn- 
ing exercises will be helpful. 

Local government should naturally be emphasized. The 
school district will represent a type of pure democracy where 
all the people have an opportunity to take part in the govern- 
ment. Students ought to be familiar with the formation of 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 165 

a school district, the annual meeting, the officers and their 
duties, the permanent school fund, and from what sources 
the money used to maintain the school is raised. In Chapter 
I a more complete discussion was given. The town govern- 
ment should also be studied in states where this is an 
important unit. A distinction can be made between the demo- 
cratic form of government, as the school district and town- 
ship, and the representative form, as the county, state, 
and nation. The duties of the supervisors of the town, 
(not village) the annual town meeting, roads and bridges, 
and other topics of interest may be studied. The officers 
of the county and their duties, the commissioners, or county 
board, and the county roads and bridges are important 
for this unit of government. 

The state and national government may be studied as 
time will permit, but they should not receive the attention 
at the expense of the local units of government. It is of 
very much more importance to the average individual to 
know who is to serve on the school board of the district and 
his attitude toward public education than to know who will 
be the next President of the nation. The former officer may 
have a much more direct bearing upon the welfare of the 
community than the latter. Notwithstanding this fact nine 
persons out of every ten will stay away from the annual 
school meeting. 

A practical civics society is sometimes organized to create 
interest in parliamentary rules and governmental affairs. 
The entire room may form this organization and elect then- 
officers. These are elected and the same order of business 
followed as in any public meeting. We have organized 
these societies in many schools with varying degrees of suc- 
cess. In some the greatest interest has prevailed from the 
start, while in others it gradually lagged until everybody 



166 RURAL EDUCATION 

became disgusted with the organization. I am unkind 
enough to say that the only difference was in the teachers. 
On more than one public occasion little tots in the second 
year at school presided as president and secretary with the 
ease and dignity of a senator. A gavel tied with ribbons, 
the colors of the society, may be used, if desired. At times 
it is well to have this organization take charge of the open- 
ing exercises, selecting their own songs, quotations, etc. A 
particularly interesting feature is the use of Mr. and Miss 
when a person addresses the chair, or when that officer 
recognizes one on the floor. The salute to the flag may be 
given as part of the exercises, letting a different student 
hold the flag each time 

Time for teaching civics will be obtained only by taking 
it. Many of the suggestions given above can be conducted 
incidentally or correlated with other subjects. Civics is 
more important than much of the book history and some 
other subjects taught in our schools. Part of this time, if 
there is no other, should be devoted to preparation for citizen- 
ship. 



CHAPTER XIII 
GEOGRAPHY 

Geography may be defined as the study of the earth as 
related to man. In this subject especially the teacher should 
apply this principle in pedagogy, "Begin with the known 
and work to the related unknown." The older notion of 
beginning with the planets and then with the physical fea- 
tures of the grand divisions of the earth has gradually been 
abandoned until most educators are agreed that the indus- 
trial and commercial side of geography should be the central 
idea of the entire course. In this regard the recommenda- 
tion of the Committee of Fifteen is of interest: "The child 
commences with what is nearest to his interests, and pro- 
ceeds gradually toward what is to be studied for its own 
sake. It is, therefore, a mistake to suppose that the first 
phase of geography presented to the child should be the 
process of continent formation. He must begin with the 
natural differences of climate and lands and waters and 
obstacles that separate peoples, and study the methods by 
which man strives to equalize or overcome these differences 
by industry and commerce, to unite all places and all peoples, 
and make it possible for all to share in the productions of 
all. The industrial and commercial idea is, therefore, the 
first central idea in geography in the elementary schools. 
It leads directly to the natural elements of different climate, 
soil, and productions, and also to those in race, religion, 
political status, and occupations of the inhabitants, with a 
view to explain the grounds and reasons for this counter- 
process of civilization which struggles to overcome the dif- 
ferences." 

Much of the geography is largely a process of memory 

167 



168 RURAL EDUCATION 

work and should be learned during the drill age, which 
corresponds approximately to the Second and Third Divi- 
sions. For example, learning the names of countries, rivers, 
and cities is not a process of reasoning. There is just one 
way to learn this phase of geography and that is by constant 
drill. Maps and globes will help, and the teacher should 
make more use of them than she often does. Every stu- 
dent should be required to make from memory a fairly 
good outline map of each of the continents. These remain 
the same regardless of wars and international treaties, 
while the boundaries of countries do not. A student who 
can draw such an outline off-hand from memory 
will not locate the British Isles south of Spain, as I recently 
saw one pupil who had finished geography do. It is well 
to be able to locate the great cities of the world, also the 
chief industrial activities, as the coal and iron producing 
regions, forests, grains, etc., not locally for one country, 
but for the entire world. 

A great deal of the geography work should be taught 
out of doors. While it may be more difficult for the rural 
teacher to arrange her work so that she can take the geog- 
raphy class on excursions, it is the country rather than the 
town that renders them worth while. An occasional trip 
can be arranged in the afternoon after the first division 
has been dismissed. Both of the other divisions can be 
taken at the same time. Teachers often talk about the 
lessons in the book, when they could take the class for an 
outing and study the real things. We spend hours during 
the year in various classes talking about how grains are 
planted, cultivated, harvested, and threshed, when these 
things are being done all about us. I well remember having 
to stand in the corner with my back to the school for an 
hour, because I looked out of the window to see a thresh- 



GEOGRAPHY 169 

ing machine go by. What live boy is not interested in 
a puffing engine drawing a separator along the road? How 
much better it would have been for the teacher to have 
taken the entire school outside for five minutes to watch 
the threshing outfit go by! The occasion could have been 
made the basis for several interesting lessons later on. 
Weathering, erosion, land formations, and a great many 
other similar topics that are often difficult for the student 
to grasp, can so easily be explained from nature. If there 
is a stream within a mile of the school house, the teacher 
should use it as her laboratory in geography. 

As it is not a common thing for rural students to do 
field work, some teachers may be timid to inaugurate it, 
fearing that the community might think she was wasting 
time. The teacher who is big enough to make geography 
a real, live subject, will have no trouble. A grocery store, 
blacksmith shop, creamery, brick or tile yard, dairy farm, 
poultry yard, kitchen garden, orchard and grain field are 
other places of interest, where geography can best be taught 
at first hand. 

McMurry, in his "Special Method in Geography/' 
says there are seven principal topics that may be studied 
experimentally in home geography. They are: 

1. Food products and occupations connected with them. 

2. Building materials and related trades. 

3. Clothing materials used, manufacture, etc. 

4. Local commerce, roads, bridges, railroads. 

5. Local surface features. Streams, hills, woods, etc. 

6. Town and county government. Courthouse, city hall, coun- 

cil, etc. 

7. Climate and seasons. Sun, wind, storms, heat. 

The geography lesson in the rural school so often drags 
when it ought to be one of the most interesting subjects. 
Students should be encouraged to make collections of 



170 RURAL EDUCATION 

soils, rocks, plants, etc., found in the community. The 
older boys will be delighted, if asked to make a collection 
of the different kinds of wood they can find. A cross- 
section of a small tree, two or three inches in diameter, 
can be made by sawing off a piece about half an inch thick 
and sandpapering one end, which will show the bark, 
sap-wood, rings of growth and heart of the tree. A lon- 
gitudinal section can be prepared by sawing off a block 
three or four inches long from the same tree and splitting 
it in two. These specimens can be mounted on a panel 
of some kind and hung up on the wall, if there is room. 
A collection of this kind properly labeled is well worth 
the time it takes to prepare it. The school should be 
equipped with at least one slated globe and two or three 
blackboard charts slated on both sides, for illustrative 
exercises in geography. Slated cloth, charts and globes 
may be obtained for twenty-five cents each. The charts 
cost about a dollar and a half each and can be used for his- 
tory work as well as geography. 

It is generally conceded now that the course in this 
subject should begin with home geography. Let this 
kind of teaching be literally true. The school district, 
township, county, state and nation will follow in order; 
then North America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia and 
South America. The first part of the course presents the 
home geography idea, while the second traces the devel- 
opment of the other continents from Europe as the center. 

FIRST DIVISION WORK 

While there is no recitation in geography as such for 
this division, some of the work in the general lessons and 
in language should be geographical in its nature. Excur- 
sions with the rest of the school should be made occasion- 



GEOGRAPHY 171 

ally in the spring and fall. Those things near at hand 
should be taught by the objective method. In the language 
work, "Seven Little Sisters" can be made the basis for 
much of the work in geography in this division. This 
can be followed by " Each and All" and the story of "Robinson 
Crusoe." One copy of each of these books will be suffi- 
cient, as the teacher will tell the stories and have them re- 
produced by the class. 

A sand table as large as the room will accommodate 
should be prepared and kept in constant readiness. Lakes, 
rivers, mountains, plains, and other physical formations 
can be illustrated. The sand table can also be used to 
illustrate stories in literature. 

McMurry's "Special Method in Geography" is a splen- 
did reference book for the teacher. See also agricultural 

outlines. 

SECOND DIVISION 

The program plans for a twenty-minute period in this 
division, with the fourth and fifth years' students reciting 
together. One year of this work should be devoted to home 
geography, the county and state, keeping as the central 
idea industrial and commercial geography. The students 
should learn to draw memory maps of the county and the 
state. Relief maps and industrial maps of each should 
also be made. The other year of this division should be 
devoted to a study of the United States by groups, and 
later to the whole North American continent making 
relief and industrial maps from memory. Since the two 
classes of this division are combined, the teacher can read- 
ily see that one half of this work will necessarily come 
first to one fourth year class when it enters the division, 
and the other half to the next fourth year, class when it 
enters a year later. While this plan may not be ideal, 



172 RURAL EDUCATION 

and would not be necessary in the graded schools, it is very 
much better than to have two classes and to divide the 
time. Let the students read "Seven Little Sisters," "Each 
and All," and other similar books and part of the group 
reading material in this division. Two copies of each book 
will be all that is needed. A textbook may be used the 
last half of each year, provided something that is suit- 
able can be obtained. "Home Geography" by Fairbanks, 
and Long's "Home Geography" are good, as well as the 
books of the Tarr and McMurry series, and other stand- 
ard geographies that can now be obtained. This is the period 
for whatever memory work is to be done in geography. 

THIRD DIVISION 

In this division the course provides for one year of 
geography to alternate with one year of history. It is 
evident that one year the geography will come in the sixth 
year and the next it will be in the seventh. Some teachers 
feel that this is not enough time for either history or geo- 
graphy; but there is no doubt that more can be accom- 
plished in combining the classes and alternating the work 
than by offering both subjects every year and giving half 
the time to the recitations. But little could be done in a 
ten-minute period in either subject. No more time than 
this could be given unless it were taken from some other 
recitation. As it is, the student studies each of these sub- 
jects three years, and a good foundation should be laid 
before this in first division work. After all, with a pro- 
perly organized course, much can be taught in that time. 
If it seems desirable, one half of the year can be devoted 
to geography and the other half to history during each 
year of the third division work. Any good textbook may 
be used. Start with Europe and follow the order given 



GEOGRAPHY 173 

above, emphasizing particularly the industries and com- 
merce of each country. 

The physical features of each continent should be care- 
fully studied in this division. Weather maps may be 
obtained from the nearest weather bureau and the students 
taught how to read them. Why the cyclonic storms pass 
periodically from the western to the eastern coast, why the 
wind blows from the east before a local storm and, then 
changes around to the north or northwest, are topics that 
will be intensely interesting, if properly presented. A 
study of the ocean currents and planetary winds will reveal 
the cause of the different climatic conditions of places in 
the same latitude, as, for instance, the British Isles and 
Labrador. Only those physical features that are of direct 
practical value should be discussed in these classes. 

The productions of the United States should be studied 
very carefully for each section of the country. Taken up 
topically, cereals, live stock, cotton, forests, fruits, fisheries, 
minerals and manufacturing would receive attention. Fol- 
lowing these, logical topics are transportation and exchange 
not only in our own country but with foreign nations. 

After the continents have been studied in order, the 
great transcontinental railroads and their importance to 
the nations; the ocean routes radiating from the terminals 
of these railroads; the canals and how they influence com- 
merce; comparison of the products of different countries; 
the chief exports and imports of each; the meaning of "bal- 
ance of trade" and how it affects different countries; free 
trade and production, should receive an explanation based 
on actual and practical facts. 

Many industrial exhibits, such as milling products, 
soil products, thread manufacturing, etc., may be ob- 
tained from manufacturing establishments. Most of these 



174 



RURAL EDUCATION 



are sent free; others may be obtained at a nominal cost. 
Similar exhibits prepared by the teacher herself will be 
found to be the very best kind of training for teaching 
those subjects. The author once spent a few hours a day 
for two weeks in preparing an exhibit of some thirty-six 
stages of the products of a flour mill. These products 
ranged from the grain in the hopper to the best grade of 
flour and all its by-products. The bottles were properly 
labeled and notes taken on the entire process. Similar 
studies in a large lumber mill and a brickyard were equally 
beneficial. Close the year's work with a brief review of 
the geography of the United States. A list of reference 
books is suggested for the library. 

LIST OF GEOGRAPHY REFERENCES 



Lolame The Little Cliff Dweller- 
Bay liss 
Stories of Country Life — Bradish 
Stories of Woods and Fields — 

Brown 
Around the World (First Book) — 

Carroll & Jerome 
Around the World (Second Book) 

— Carroll & Jerome 
Around the World (Third Book) 

— Carroll & Jerome 
How We Are Clothed — Chamber- 
lain 
How We Are Fed — Chamberlain 
Little Folks of Many Lands — 

Chance 
Stories of Industries — Chase and 

Clow 
Chinese Folk Stories — Davis 
The Early Cave Men — Dopp 
The Tree Dwellers — Dopp 
The Later Cave Men — Dopp 
Home Life in Colonial Days — 

Earle 
Home Geography for Primary 

Grades — Fairbanks 
A Little Journey to Cuba and 
Porto Rico — George 



A Little Journey to Hawaii and 

the Philippines — George 
Forestry in Minnesota — Green 
The Childhood of Hi-Ship the 

O j ib way — Jenks 
Wigwam Stories — Judd 
Northern Europe — Mason 
Our Country East — Mason 
Our Country West — Mason 
Industries of To-day — Mason 
Under Sunny Skies — Mason 
Little People of the Snow — Muller 
Eskimo Stories — Smith 
Heidi — Spyri 

Pete — Cow Puncher — Ames 
Over the Andes — Butterworth 
Jan of the Windmill (Story of the 

Plains) — Ewmg 
Food Products of the World — 

Green 
Out on the Pampas — Henty 
The Story of the Cowboy — Hough 
The Fur Seal's Tooth— Munroe 
Snow Shoes and Sledges — Munroe 
Prince Dusty — Munroe 
Great American Industries — 

Rocheleau 
Hunting the Grizzly — Roosevelt 



CHAPTER XIV 
NUMBERS AND ARITHMETIC 

A prominent educator once made the statement that if 
he could have a normal child at the age of twelve or four- 
teen, he could teach him in six months all the arithmetic 
he would ever need to know. If so, we surely ought not to 
hear so much criticism of this subject as it is taught in the 
schools. We hear that children who have completed the 
common schools, and in some cases even the high schools, 
cannot do ordinary work in numbers. Inaccuracy is the 
first complaint, and that students are slow in the funde- 
mental operations is the second. It should not be under- 
stood that pupils are more backward in number processes 
than they were a generation or two ago. They are not. 
On the whole, our rural and elementary schools are far 
superior to those of former generations, but there is more 
demand in the commercial world for the products of these 
schools to use what they have learned; hence, the work 
must be more thorough. 

The defects in arithmetic as it is applied to business 
are probably largely due to the fact that school arithmetic 
has not been the business man's arithmetic. We go on 
teaching processes that are never used outside the school- 
room merely because they are in the book. In some cases, 
where a more up-to-date text is in use, the teacher actually 
" works in" some of these obsolete exercises from a text 
or notebook that she used, in order to give the "mental 
training" the children should get from arithmetic. If she 
could only realize what a wealth of mental training there 
is in really mastering the fundamentals, and then applying 
them to real problems outside of school, less time would 

175 



176 RURAL EDUCATION 

be wasted on this subject. Time is worse than wasted, 
because too often book arithmetic is not interesting, and 
students become indifferent in the advanced grades where 
they should be doing their best work. 

Textbooks in arithmetic are important and the best 
that can be obtained should be used in the rural schools. 
We have all seen books that no village school would use, 
retained in rural schools on account of a contract price that 
may save the district a few cents or dollars. The fault lies 
with the school board. The teacher who finds such condi- 
tions is sometimes helpless. She should always have the 
courage to ask for efficient equipment. Then, if the board 
refuses, it is not her fault. She should be familiar with 
what subject matter should be taught in each grade or 
division of the school. Many teachers do not have the 
subject systematized. Too often the work in numbers is 
indefinite and unrelated. One teacher, not knowing, per- 
haps, what another has taught, repeats work and omits 
other essentials altogether. Undoubtedly much valuable 
time and energy are lost. The teacher ought to have a 
mental outline of what is suitable material for the primary 
division, the intermediate grades, and for the advanced 
classes. In a measure she will then be independent of the 
textbooks, and, in any event, will be able to conduct the 
oral work, so much more of which is needed in all our 
schools, in a systematic and efficient manner. 

Formal number work should not begin too early. There 
is some difference of opinion as to where one should begin 
to teach arithmetic. Some begin in the first year, and others 
in the second or third. Inasmuch as the main theme of 
the first three years should be the mechanics of reading, 
together with the oral language work, it would seem that 
whatever work in numbers is given, should be largely inci- 



NUMBERS AND ARITHMETIC 177 

dental. I should have no formal number work in the first 
grade of a city school, not to mention a rural school where 
so much less time is available for reading and language. In 
the second and third it should be incidental and occupational. 
For example, the pupil should know the time by the clock, 
the day of the month, the page of the book. In other words, 
he should know how to count and use numbers that he needs 
to know in his daily work. The industrial work and other 
lessons will give opportunities to form such definite number 
concepts as are needed in this division. For those who 
desire to teach numbers in the first years of school an out- 
line as usually taught is suggested. 

FIRST DIVISION 

The aim of the First Division is to give a definite concept 
of each number as it is introduced, and to teach number 
facts and promote speed and accuracy in the use of them. 
In short, the aim is to furnish a sound and usable basis for 
the advanced work. No formal, logical analysis or reason- 
ing should be expected, of course, and no textbook should 
be used in the hands of the pupils. The program, as sug- 
gested in the three division plan, provides for all three 
classes of the First Division to recite at the same time, thus 
giving each student thirty minutes under the direct super- 
vision of the teacher instead of only ten minutes, if each 
were to recite separately. This arrangement will give any 
energetic teacher time enough to present the work to each 
class in turn and keep the other two busy at the board while 
she has the one at the recitation seats. 

The first year work, as already stated, should be largely 
incidental. Numbers may be used in games, handwork, 
nature study, reading, and seat work. Suggestions for this 
year are given in the teacher's manual, or first book of any 
12— 



178 RURAL EDUCATION 

late arithmetic series. By the end of the year the children 
will be able to read and write simple numbers within their 
comprehension, to count to a reasonable number, and to 
recognize equalities and differences. If formal number is 
required, number facts should be taught up to ten. 

The second and third year work should continue in the 
same manner. Read and write numbers that are actually 
used in other work of these years. Teach counting by 
twos, threes, fours, fives, and tens, up to one hundred. 
This will lay the foundation for the formal number work of 
the Second Division. Present simple fractions, as one half, 
one third, one fourth, one fifth, and others within the under- 
standing of the child. This is done with objects only at 
this time. Work with measures, as the peck, gallon, quart, 
pint, yard, foot, inch, pound and ounce. Of course a set of 
these measures must be part of the school equipment for 
effective results. Many special devices for the seat work 
in number should be used. A good primary magazine will 
give valuable assistance. With a printing press and some 
oak tag card board, several sets of flash cards may be made. 
These should supplement any other material that may be 
on hand, as they can be made to suit the work as taught 

each month. 

SECOND DIVISION 

The four fundamental operations in number — addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, and division, together with 
simple work in common and decimal fractions, ought to be 
so presented and drilled, that, if the student should go no 
further in school, he would be able to use arithmetic in any 
ordinary work. This purpose is not theoretical; it is entirely 
possible. The two classes can be together or not in the 
work, depending upon what they have had in the First 
Division; but, in any event, they should recite at the same 



NUMBERS AND ARITHMETIC 179 

time. One class may be at the board while the teacher is 
presenting the new work and assigning the lesson to the 
other. Flash cards and special devices should be used as 
in the First Division. A large amount of the work for this 
division should be oral. Have a good *oral arithmetic on 
the desk as a guide; otherwise, the work may not be syste- 
matic. This division is the period in which all the necessary 
tables should be fixed in mind. Cancellation, factoring, 
greatest common divisor and least common multiple should 
be taught only as they can be directly applied. All opera- 
tions should be confined to common business numbers. 

Business arithmetic is not hard. It is the schoolbook 
work in numbers that is difficult and perplexing for the stu- 
dent. We teach tables as they happen to be found in the 
textbooks and then fail to vitalize them in application to 
real life. There are but ninety different processes in num- 
bers, and omitting the combinations with the digit one, 
which are really axiomatic, there are only seventy-two. If 
these and their simple applications are thoroughly mastered, 
there is little occasion for complex problems. The teacher 
must know how to present the mechanics of arithmetic, as 
she must know the phonics for the foundation of reading, if 
she expects success. I was never taught any tables but 
those in multiplication, and never knew those thoroughly 
until I began to teach. The whole hundred and forty-four 
processes were given, and for several years we repeated them, 
parrot-like, without making any use of most of them. Many 
books now give addition tables and other mechanics of num- 
bers, but they are usually too complicated. The old spiral ser- 
ies is giving way to topical books for the advanced students. 

Addition and subtraction tables should be mastered in 
the Second Division. It is not necessary to teach a new 
set of subtraction tables; in fact, it may be confusing to do 



180 RURAL EDUCATION 

so. For instance, 2+4 = 6 is one of the addition tables. It 
is much better to teach the inverse of this at once, or 6 — 4=2 
and 6 — 2 = 4, by thinking what number added to 4 equals 6, 
and what number added to 2 equals 6. This is the "making 
change" method of teaching subtraction and will be easy 
for the pupils, if it is not hard for the teacher. In this way 
addition and subtraction will be taught at the same time, 
as they should be, and the application to simple problems 
may be made as the tables are being learned. Nearly all of 
the problem work should be oral in this division. I have 
seen a hundred exercises and problems solved in oral work in 
less time than it usually takes to do ten of the same kind in 
the average lesson, because the average lesson is written 
and formal. The forty-five processes for addition, and also 
for subtraction as indicated above, are given for those who 
may not have used them. As already stated, the first 
column of ones may be omitted, if desired, as the counting 
of the First Division work will show the pupil that one 
added to any number will give the next number. 





Addition Tables 






The inverse process 


teaches subtraction. 




(1) 


(2) 


(3) 


(4) 


1+1=2 


2+2=4 


3+3=6 


4+4 = 8 


1+2 = 3 


2+3 = 5 


3+4 = 7 


4+5=9 


1+3=4 


2+4 = 6 


3+5=8 


4+6 = 10 


1+4 = 5 


2+5 = 7 


3+6 = 9 


4+7 = 11 


1+5 = 6 


2+6 = 8 


3+7 = 10 


4+8 = 12 


1+6 = 7 


2+7=9 


3+8 = 11 


4+9 = 13 


1+7 = 8 


2+8 = 10 


3+9 = 12 




1+8 = 9 


2+9 = 11 






1+9 = 10 








(5) 


(6) 


(7) 


(8) 


5+5 = 10 


6+6 = 12 


7+7 = 14 


8+8 = 16 


5+6 = 11 


6+7 = 13 


7+8 = 15 


8+9 = 17 


5+7 = 12 


6+8 = 14 


7+9 = 16 




5+8 = 13 


6+9 = 15 




(9) 


5+9 = 14 






9+9 = 18 



NUMBERS AND ARITHMETIC 181 

Counting by twos, threes, etc., up to ten, as suggested 
for the First Division work, will prepare the pupil for the 
study of these tables. An average of two of these processes 
each week during the fourth school year will be sufficient to 
master the entire list, and three days a week may be spent 
on their application in oral exercises and problems. 

Multiplication Tables 
The inverse process teaches division. 

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 

1X1 = 1 2X2 = 4 3X3=9 4X4 = 16 5X5=25 

1X2 = 2 2X3=6 3X4 = 12 4X5=20 5X6 = 30 

1X3 = 3 2X4 = 8 3X5 = 15 4X6=24 5X7 = 35 

1X4=4 2X5 = 10 3X6 = 18 4X7 = 28 5X8 = 40 

1X5 = 5 2X6 = 12 3X7=21 4X8 = 32 5X9=45 

1X6 = 6 2X7 = 14 3X8 = 24 4X9=36 

1X7 = 7 2X8 = 16 3X9 = 27 

1X8 = 8 2X9 = 18 
1 X9 = 9 

(6) (7) (8) (9) 

6X6 = 36 7X7=49 8X8 = 64 9X9 = 81 

6X7 = 42 7X8 = 56 8X9=72 

6X8=48 7X9 = 63 

6X9 = 54 

Eliminating the first column of ones, which the student 
already knows, there are but thirty-six processes in multi- 
plication. The other three fourths of what we used to learn 
in the multiplication tables is either review or unnecessary 
work. The elevens and twelves were only half -learned from 
counting. As each process is learned the other two processes 
derived from it should be studied, as 2x6 = 12 ; hence, 12-H3 = 2. 
Two of these learned each week during the fifth school year 
will give three days a week for application and ample time 
for review at the end of the year. 

Common and decimal fractions should also be studied 
during the fifth year. Not in the manner given in many 
books, but continuing with the simple business fractions 
of the First Division. In fact, all that is necessary for these 



182 RURAL EDUCATION 

grades is the half, the fourth, the tenth, and the hundredth, 
and their divisions, as three fourths, nine tenths, etc. 

The student should be taught to write the fraction both 
ways when he first learns it. The American money will 
teach about all the decimals needed, if the teacher will 
make the pupils "see the point." It is the decimal point 
that causes all the trouble in that subject. 

Fractions Needed 

Common %, }i, Ho, Koo 
Decimal .50, .25, .10, .01. 

By using the zero in the decimals for one half and one 
tenth, the decimal will be written as fifty cents and ten 
cents, forms with which the student is probably already 
familiar. It is evident that any multiple of these fractions 
can be taught in connection with these. Other fractions 
than those here suggested are rare in business, and yet 
how we still torture the child and ourselves by teaching 
something hard! For example, where, outside the school- 
room, do we meet a monstrosity like this? 

Reduce : 2% 
5% 



2% 

This is not difficult, if one remembers that a fraction 
is merely another way of expressing division, and reduces 
it accordingly; but it is unsound pedagogically, and pos- 
itively silly to waste time in school with such work. But 
some textbooks are still guilty. 

The arithmetical processes suggested for the Second 
Division are surely not difficult, and any school can master 
them and be able to apply the numbers to real conditions 



NUMBERS AND ARITHMETIC 183 

in the two years of this division, whether any work in num- 
bers has been given in the previous years or not. 

THIRD DIVISION 

The two classes of the division should be combined and 
work together. If the work as outlined for the Second 
Division needs reviewing, that should be taken up first. 
The new work will be largely percentage and its applica- 
tion to business. Some of the topics are profit and loss, 
insurance, interest, checks, notes, bills, etc. Any good 
text may be used and the topics selected that are suitable 
for the Third Division work. Half of the course is given 
to the combined classes one year, and the other half the next. 

Accounts should be taught in this division. Egg re- 
cord and other blanks may be obtained from your Exten- 
sion Division of the Agricultural College and copies made 
and used. Make up some ledger rulings on sheets or cards 
and teach practical accounts. Use the actual data in this 
work. The students will enjoy keeping the accounts, 
and in this way the arithmetic they have learned can be 
applied to daily life. Encourage the boys to keep accounts 
for the farm business and the girls to keep home accounts. 
All they need to know is the idea of what an account is, 
the kind of ruling used, the debit and credit sides and when 
to debit and credit an account. The student can be taught 
to debit an account when the account receives, and to credit 
an account when the account parts with something. For 
every debit entered on one account, there must always be 
a corresponding credit on some other account. Hence, 
the sum of the debits of all the accounts must always equal 
the sum of the credits of all the accounts. This kind of 
work is not too difficult for pupils of the upper classes; 
it is really not as hard as some of the problems often given, 



184 



RURAL EDUCATION 



and it will be much more useful. An inventory should 
be taken first. The boys may make this for the farm, 
stock, implements, etc., and the girls, for the home in the 
same manner. 

Six or eight accounts are all that are necessary to keep 
the farm transactions in a business way. The same number 
will suffice for the home. For the farm the following ac- 
counts may be started and others added if desirable: Cash, 
Dairy or Live Stock, Corn, Grain, or an account for each 
kind of grain as desired, and Personal Accounts. For the 
home: Cash, Food Supplies, Household Furnishings, Clo- 
thing, Rent, Fuel and Light, Miscellaneous, and Personal 
Accounts. Suggestive inventories and accounts are given. 

In the accounts on the next two pages (185 and 186) 
the Italics should be written in red ink, according to the 
usual custom of bookkeepers. 

SUGGESTIVE ACCOUNTS 

CONTINUED INVENTORIES 



Items 



Kitchen Utensils 
1 Range 

1 Tea Kettle . . 

2 Dish Pans . . 
Etc 

Dining Room 

1 Table 

6 Chairs 

Table Linen . . 
Etc 

Living Room 

2 Rockers .... 

1 Stand 

1 Rug 

Etc 

Hall 

1 Hall Tree... 

1 Rug 

Bedrooms 

2 Bedsteads. . 

2 Rugs 

2 Dressers 



Remarks 



3 yrs. old. 
Nickel . . . 
Enamel . . 



Quar. Oak 

Quar. Oak 

Cloths, Napkins. 



Oak.... 
Oak.... 
Wilton. 



Oak 

Brussels. 

Iron. . . . 

Rag 

Oak 



Jan. 1, 
1914 


Jan. 1, 
1915 


40 00 
1 50 
1 50 


36 00 
1 00 
1 00 


22 50 

9 00 

12 50 


20 00 

7 00 

8 50 


15 00 

3 75 
18 00 


12 00 

3 25 

16 00 


4 50 

8 50 


4 25 

7 00 


17 50 

6 00 

18 00 


16 5C 

4 00 

16 00 



Jan. 1, 
1916 



NUMBERS AND ARITHMETIC 



185 



S. A. NORBERG 



Date 
3-16 



Brought Forward 
Received Check 



Brought Forward 



Date 

1-5 

1-9 |2 lbs. Dairy Butter @ 25c. 



1 Sack Flour. 



2 10 
50 



2 60 



C. A. SWANSON 



Date 
1-16 



Brought Forward 
Received Check 





Date 


3 30 


1-4 
1-6 


3 30 





Brought Forward 

2 Kitchen Chairs @ 75c. . 

Picture Wire 

2 yds. Linoleum @ 85c. . . 



1 


50 




10 


1 


70 



3 30 



A. L. THELANDER & CO. 



Date Brought Forward 
1-16 By Check 





Date 


4 85 


1-11 
1-14 




1-16 


4 85 



Brought Forward 

5 gal. Kerosene @ 15c 
2 pkgs. Needles @ 10c 

1 pr. Shoes 

1 pr. Yarn Gloves. . . . 

6 yds. Gingham @ 15c 



75 
20 
3 50 
50 
90 



4 85 



MRS. HENRY SMITH 



Date 
1 -16 



Brought Forward 
Monthly Allowance . . . . 





Date 


40 00 


1-2 


40 00 



Brought Forward 
Received Check 



40 00 



40 00 



CASH 



Date 
1-2 


Brought Forward 
Received Check 


40 00 


Date 

1-2 

1-10 
1-16 

1-16 


Brought Forward 

2 lbs. Mutton @ 15c 

1 lb. Lard 


30 




Bal. on Hand 


18 






10 00 




Church Collections 

A. L. Thelander & Co 

S. A. Norberg 


50 

4 85 
2 60 






3 30 






18 27 










40 00 


40 00 


1-16 


18 27 





186 



RURAL EDUCATION 



RENT, FUEL & LIGHTING 



Date 
1-2 


Brought Forward 
Paid Rent. . , 


10 00 
75 


Date 
3-16 


Brought Forward 


10 75 


1-11 


5 gal. Kerosene @ 15c. . . 








10 75 


10 75 


HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 


Date 

1-4 
1-6 


Brought Forward 
2 Kitchen Chairs @ 75c. . 


1 50 

10 

1 70 


Date 
3-16 


Brought Forward 
House F. Expense 


3 30 




2 yds. Linoleum @ 85c . . . 






3 30 


3 30 


CLOTHING 


Date 
1-14 


Brought Forward 


3 50 
50 
90 

4 90 


Date 
3-16 


Brought Forward 


4 90 


1-16 


1 pr. Yarn Gloves 

6 yds. Gingham @ 15c. . . 








4 90 


I 


X)OD SUPPLIES 




Date 
1-2 


Brought Forward 

2 lbs. Mutton @ 15c 

1 lb. Lard 

1 Sack Flour 


30 

18 

2 10 

50 


Date 
1-16 


Brought Forward 


3 08 


1-5 






1-9 


2 lbs. Butter @ 25c 






3 08 


3 08 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Date 
1-10 


Brought Forward 

Church Collection 

2 pkgs. Needles @ 10c. . . 


50 

20 


Date 
3-16 


Brought Forward 


70 


1-14 








70 ! 


70 



CHAPTER XV 

SEAT WORK AND SPECIAL DEVICES 

Many good class teachers fail to get results from pu- 
pils who are at their desks. The advanced classes will 
have books to study, but the younger children have not 
yet learned to study, and must be provided with plenty 
of seat work. The busy teacher often feels that she does 
not have the time to prepare such work, and primary classes 
are sometimes left to shift for themselves while other classes 
are being conducted. Seat work must be definitely planned 
and faithfully executed. Materials must be carefully ar- 
ranged according to subjects and grades and used system- 
atically. Monitors may be appointed to distribute and 
collect the boxes or envelopes containing the seat work, 
thus allowing the teacher to conduct her classes without 

loss of time. 

Seat Work 

Industrial work may be given for part of the seat work 
for primary students, as they may not stay for that work 
at the general period in the afternoon. Suitable outlines 
for industrial work are given in Chapter XVII. 

Free-hand cutting is interesting and useful seat work. 
Dull pointed scissors costing only fifty or sixty cents a dozen 
should be used for this work. There is no better way to 
determine whether a student got the thought of an oral 
lesson than by letting him illustrate it with paper cutting. 
The Pilgrims, Christmas Stories, Little Red Riding Hood, 
etc., are suggestive stories that might be illustrated. 

Drawing is always interesting work for children, and 
part of the vacant periods of * the primary division can 
profitably be devoted to it. Ordinary white drawing 

187 



188 



RURAL EDUCATION 



paper and pencil may be used, but a few colored pencils 
and charcoal sticks will add to the interest. Seasonal 
subjects should be selected, as fruit in the fall, snow scenes 
in winter, and flowers in the spring. Water color work is 
also desirable, if it is properly supervised and not overdone. 

Special seat work in language, geography, and arith- 
metic should follow the class work in those subjects. A 
few devices are suggested. Many of them are not new, 
but they may be helpful to the young teacher. 

LANGUAGE SEAT WORK 

Printing presses are not expensive. A few of these in 
the primary division would supply a large amount of prac- 
tical work in language. In a crowded school the older 
students should assist with this work. 

Buried words to be selected from words and sentences 
and listed will be helpful occasionally. For example, "He 
arose from his seat." Find a flower and a body of water. 
The answer is "rose" and "sea." 

Letter and phonic drill. A card of oak tag four 
by thirteen inches is ruled off into inch squares. The first 
thirteen letters are written in the upper row, and the last 
thirteen in the third row. On the back of the card have 



a 


b 


c 


d 


z 


f 


g 


h 


i 


J 


k 


1 


m 








< 


OXc 


,<u/ J. 


^tttbU 


V &L/ 


*) 










n 





P 


q 


r 


S 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


M 


z 





























Figure 11. Letter and phonic drill. 



SEAT WORK AND SPECIAL DEVICES 



189 



an envelope containing all the letters of the alphabet. The 
game is to match the letters on the card. This device may 
be used for learning the letters and their sounds. See 
Figure 11. One card is needed for each child. 

Word and phonic drill. Make oak tag cards about eight 
by twelve inches. With ink draw the root part of the 
word, and add the other letters, as in the card with the 



Trum. 



M 



\ \ 

\ 






4£nue. 



U 



\7urtt. 



A 






^ ! 



AC 

Figure 12. Word and phonic drills. 



picture of a cat. The words catch, cattle, catkin, catnip, 
and catsup are suggested. See Figures 12 and 13 for this 
and others. These may also be used for class work. 

Lesson stories. On a card of oak tag six by twelve 
inches paste a picture at one end. Pictures for this may be 
obtained from old readers or magazines. On the other 
end of the card write words at the top and underline them. 
Then write sentences about the picture; but, instead of 
writing the words selected at top of the card, put a dash for 
each word omitted, and let the students fill in the blanks 
with the proper words. See illustration. 

Word drills. Make a card of heavy oak tag ten by 



/ / 



190 



RURAL EDUCATION 




,cX 



tL 



fU/?V 

X 

Figure 13. Word and phonic drills. 




fr 



twelve inches for each pupil in the division. At the top 
paste three or four small pictures, or make drawings. 
Underneath each picture write a word showing something 
prominent in the picture. In an envelope fastened to the 



(Picture of a 
mill, wheel, and 
a botj fishing) 









£aA*fr2S 



jiovr- 






Figure 14. Language lesson story. 



SEAT WORK AND SPECIAL DEVICES 



191 



Boy 

Snow Man 




Ho.n 
xf 

ChicKens 




tf 

Oranqzs 




KlttunS 



Hen 



Ve/lov 



Cat 



Figure 15. Language word drills. 



back of the card have 
neat slips, each contain- 
ing a word showing 
something about the 
picture. See Figure 15. 
These cards may be 
exchanged until all have 
used them. This device 
should supplement the 
reading lessons. It may 
also be used to good ad- 
vantage occasionally for 
language drills in regular 
class work as the teacher 
may find opportunity. 



GEOGRAPHY SEAT WORK 

Clay modeling is an excellent means of expressing ideas 
of many geographical forms. Clay may be purchased in 
hundred pound kegs, if it is not available locally. The 
powdered form may also be bought by the pound at small 
expense. 

Relief maps may be made by mixing flour and salt to 
the proper constituency and moulding the maps on stiff 
card board. Threads soaked in bluing are used for the 
rivers. 

Matching maps. Secure the maps of several states or 
countries from old geographies or other sources. Cut 
these into different shapes. Mix the pieces. Let the 
students have sets of these and match them. In this way 
they will become familiar with the maps. 

Matching animals. Get pictures of the characteristic 
animals of the different continents. Cut them as in the 



192 



RURAL EDUCATION 



case of the maps. Let the pupils match the pieces and 
learn the animals of each continent. 

Map drawing. Let the children draw maps of the 
home farm, the school district, township, county and 
state, locating the interesting features in colors. A blue 
pencil can be used for rivers and lakes, some other colors 
for farm homes, silos, creameries, schoolhouses, villages, 
and other places of interest. Product maps may be made 
by pasting on the map some of the products of the region, 
as corn, wheat, oats, etc. 

NUMBER SEAT WORK 
Toy money may be made or purchased. Students will 
find a great deal of pleasure in using this at their seats and 
can learn to count money and make change as in actual 
business. One set for each person is required, of course. 

Domino cards are easily made. Use oak tag cards six 
by eight inches. Cut out disks about an inch in diameter 
from colored paper, red being particularly attractive. 
Paste these on the cards so that all the combinations of 
the addition tables (36) will be formed. Students may 
use these at the seats in learning the tables, and they may 
be used as flash cards in class for drill work. They may 

also be used in subtrac- 
tion, multiplication and 
division. See Figure 16. 
Dice cubes. Make 
or buy a few dozen 
blocks one inch on a 
side. The number need- 
ed will depend upon the 
size of the class using 
them. With ink, put 
the figures for all the 



o 


o o 




o 


o 


o 



Figure 16. Domino cards for number work. 



SEAT WORK AND SPECIAL DEVICES 193 

combinations in addition and multiplication tables. At 
the seats, the children turn over any two blocks at one 
time and add, subtract, multiply or divide the two figures, 
depending upon the work they are learning. A blotter 
on the desk will prevent any noise. This is a very in- 
teresting device for most children and is well worth the 
time it takes to make the cubes. In class the cubes may be 
thrown and sides chosen to see which side can answer the 
most numbers correctly. 

Colored pegs are useful for the younger children when 
they are first beginning the use of numbers. These may be 
arranged for counting or for grouping in learning the ad- 
dition and multiplication tables. 

Daisy chains, with a definite number of certain colors, 
may be used to good advantage in number work. Hang 
them up, only after they have been verified to be correct 
as to the directions in number. These and the colored 
pegs may be used for sense training in the first year, before 
they are used in number work. 

Corn is often used for seat work in arithmetic. It is 
easily obtained and may be used in counting and grouping 
as suggested for the pegs and chains. Get fresh corn when 
that in use becomes soiled. 

OTHER SEAT WORK SUGGESTIONS 

Pegs may be used to illustrate objects, as, a hat, chair, 
table, telegraph poles, and fences. Wall paper is easily 
obtained. The figures may be cut out and assorted accord- 
ing to shape and color. A leaf book in which to press and 
trace autumn leaves is interesting in the fall. Seeds and 
berries may also be used for color and grouping. Paper 
may be folded to make furniture, for example, a cup-board, 
showing the shelves, linen, dishes, fruit, etc. The common 

13— 



194 RURAL EDUCATION 

rule can usually be obtained free from lumber firms. Chil- 
dren can use this in drawing lines, making squares, and in 
measuring distances. Posters for the room and to take 
home may be made from cardboard, objects representing 
Thanksgiving, turkeys, pumpkins, squirrels, pilgrims, wig- 
wams, Indians, etc. A blank book for the child to put in 
anything he chooses, to be checked up by the teacher at 
the end of the term, will often develop originality. 

The following seat work suggestions from the outline 
of a good primary teacher may be helpful. 

1. Pictures in envelopes. Name should be written on 
each one and on outside of envelope. Pupils arrange in 
order they are written, and, later, copy the names. 

2. Sentences. Cut into words sentences from old 
readers. Write these sentences on the outside of the en- 
velope, and have students make up the sentence from the 
words. 

3. Make words known on a page from an old reader. 

4. To follow directions. Write the word found as 
follows: Page 4, line 2, word 6. 

5. Names. Write the names of ten actions, ten birds, 
ten flowers, ten animals, ten persons, ten cities. 

6. Blanks. Fill in with words or pictures. 

7. Questions and answers that will form a story of the 
lesson, or show preparation. 

8. Rhyme words, as book, look, cook, hook, etc. 

9. Copy all that one character says in a story. 
10. Cross out all the silent letters in a list. 

DEVICES FOR CLASS USE 
Language 

Dramatization has already been mentioned. It is 
always interesting, even to the most timid, if the teacher 



SEAT WORK AND SPECIAL DEVICES 195 

uses care in getting the children to respond. Only selec- 
tions worth while should be dramatized. 

Acting titles. Members of the class leave the room 
and decide upon the name of some familiar book. They 
then return and act out the title. If guessed correctly, 
other members of the class act another title in a similar 
manner. 

Reading quotations and naming authors. Familiar 
quotations are written on convenient pieces of oak tag 
card. The quotations are drawn and read by the pupils. 
Each reader attempts to give the author of the quotation. 
If he fails, the slip returns to the pile : otherwise he keeps it. 
The individual, or side, having the most slips at the end of 
a given time wins the game. 

Time conversations. The class is divided evenly, and 
the players are paired off. One of the two draws a slip 
containing a topic of conversation. The pair must rise and 
converse about the topic suggested until the time is up. 
Begin with one minute and gradually work up to four or five. 

Teakettle is an old but interesting game. One mem- 
ber of the class retires until the others decide on a word. 
He then returns and asks questions of each pupil in turn. 
The pupil must answer in a sentence containing the word 
selected, but substitutes the word "teakettle" instead of 
using the word. The one asking the questions attempts 
to guess the word from the answers. If a word having 
more than one meaning is selected, as "plum," "plumb," 
it is harder to guess and more interesting. 

Geography 

Alphabet games are played in a manner similar to a spel- 
ling contest. One leader starts by naming some city that 
begins with A. The other leader must name another 



196 RURAL EDUCATION 

that begins with A before ten can be counted, or take his 
seat. The next person in line names a city beginning with 
the same or next letter in the alphabet, and so on. The 
side having the most pupils left at the end of the time 
wins the game. 

A body of water, mountain, or other geographical subject 
may be taken instead of a city, as in the first case. Written 
games may be played in the same way, allowing one min- 
ute for each letter. These are checked and the scores 
compared. 

A traveler is chosen and assigned a place from which 
he is to start. He must tell about his journey, stating his 
route of travel, places visited, the people, occupations, 
etc. Another follows, giving his experiences, until all have 
been chosen. Geography may be reviewed in this manner. 

Drawing geographical topics written on a piece of paper 
and mixed is an interesting device. Each must give an oral 
description of the country or places mentioned on the slip. 

Exports and imports may be given by two persons at 
a time playing merchants. The two state the countries 
with which they trade, and the others must guess what they 
sell each other. 

Class Devices in Numbers 

Counting by twos, threes, fours, etc., up to tens to 
lay the foundations for the tables. Choose sides, and as 
soon as one side makes a mistake the other chooses a player 
from that side. 

Domino cards discussed for seat work should be used 
in class as flash cards for rapid oral drills in addition, sub- 
traction, multiplication and division. 

Number tops may be made of wood or cardboard and 
numbers put on the hexagonal sides, and one on the top. 



SEAT WORK AND SPECIAL DEVICES 



197 



In addition the numbers for several spins may be taken. 
The number on the top may be used in multiplication and 
division. 

Bean bag is played by tossing small bags filled with 
beans through holes in a board placed at an angle several 
feet away. The larger holes to count less than the smaller. 
Ten, five, three, two and one, may be the points for the holes 
beginning with the smallest. Each player throws three 
bags and gives his total score. Sides may be chosen and 
scores kept on the blackboard. 

Tenpins are made of cardboard cylinders and set upon 
the floor. The pupils use rubber balls or small wooden 
spheres, and bowl from a convenient distance. Scores are 
kept on the blackboard. 

Playing store with objects representing merchandise 
and with toy money is very interesting to children when 
first beginning the study of numbers. Weights and measures 
should be used also, if they are available. 

Numbers in Arabic and Ro- 
man, as well as the word for 
each number up to ten, may be 
used for primary children. 
Make a card seven by ten 
inches of oak tag. On the left 
write the Arabic figures. Have 
the Roman numerals and the 
words in a pocket on the back 
of the card. The pupils place 
them in the other columns as 
suggested in the cut. See Fig- 
ure 17. 

Bridge board is noisy, but 
* interesting. Make the board of 



/ 


I 


Onz 


2 


n 


I WO 


3 


JiXc> 


jXc 


4 






5 






6 






7 






8 






9 






10 







198 



RURAL EDUCATION 



pine by boring two inch holes and sawing down through 
the centers of the holes. Fasten supports so that the 
bridge will stand alone. At a distance of ten or fifteen 
feet, marbles are rolled through the holes which are numbered 
from one to the total number of holes in the board. The 
numbers over the arches are added for the total score. 

Fractional parts may be shown by pasting forms cut 
from red paper to a large chart board about twenty-two 
by twenty-eight inches. These can be used later for showing 
forms of area. Whole numbers are also represented to 
show their relation to the fractional parts. See Figure 18. 



K» 












K 






































— 34 

















Figure 18. Single fractions and whole numbers. 



Arithmetical races may be played by choosing sides and 
solving as many new problems as can be done in a given 
time. Check these and find out which side has the largest 
correct answers. These number of races- may be varied by 
using mechanical drills instead of problems and exercises. 



SEAT WORK AND SPECIAL DEVICES 



199 



3 2 

12 
6 8 


4 2 
G 

5 9 



Flash cards for 
drill in the funda- 
mentals may be 
made from oak tag, 
cutting the cards 
four by four inches. 
The same set may 

Figure 19. Flash cards for rapid drill. ^ used for addi _ 

tion, subtraction, multiplication and division. See Figure 19. 
Merry-Go-Round. Make a circular card about two 
feet in diameter from chart board. Get the large two- 
inch figures from calen- 
dars and paste twelve of 
these on the chart, as 
shown in the cut. Place 
a figure in the center, 
and call on a student 
to give the computa- 
tion asked, and to see 
if he can go around the 
Merry-Go -Round with- 
out falling off. All of 
the fundamental opera- 
tions may be used with 
this device. See Figure 
20. 

Cardboard charts containing a list of numbers to give 
the fractional parts, as two thirds of twenty-four, and one 
half of thirteen, may be hung on the board and the an- 
swers written on the blackboard by the teacher or a 
student. In* one, the numbers would be written in the 
space cut out of the chart, as suggested in the drawing. 
In the other the answers are written on the board to the 




Figure 20. 



Merry-Go-Round showing figure 
pinned in center. 



200 



RURAL EDUCATION 



right of the chart. The reverse side of the chart may be 
used for a different set of drills. Only practical fractions 
and comparatively small numbers should be used, so that 
all the drills may be oral. Rapid work is the secret of 
success in these drills. See Figure 21. 



















— 8 






r i6 = 




/ 








12 — 












= /4 






14 — 












= 6 






22 = 












z= 24 






24 = 


O 








5w 


= Id 




2 0f < 


20 — 

8 = 
10 = 

18 = 

9 = 
13 = 

L/5 = 


X! 

e 
o 

CO 

< 




§ of < 


V 


O 
O 


= /o 

= 22 
z= 12 
= 4 
zzz 16 
= 2 
= 20 













Figure 21. Cardboard charts to be hung on the blackboard. 

Addition tables may be learned rapidly by using flash 
cards. Those at the bottom of the cut may be used for 
any of the drills in the fundamentals. Those at the top are 
for practice in rapid addition. Notice the groups of ten. 
See Figure 22. 

"Chickens" is played by scattering a handful 01 corn 
about the floor. The children hurry to see who can get the 
most. They then count the number secured, and report. 

The fundamental tables and drills may be made inter- 
esting by various devices. For example, choose sides, and 



SEAT WORK AND SPECIAL DEVICES 



201 



put 12 on the board. 
The leader gives one 
number, and the other 
side gives the other num- 
ber that will make 12. 
Educational papers 
and magazines will sup- 
ply numbers and devices 
and should be read by 
all teachers. The brief 
suggestions given in this 
chapter will help the in- 
experienced teacher, but 
the progressive teacher 
will be original and make 
up new devices each 
year. It is well to re- 
member all devices are merely temporary aids to the child 
to be used as a crutch and thrown away when no longer 
needed. 



4 
6 

7 
3 




6 
7 
8 
9 




2 

3 
5 
4 



3 


8 


6 


2 



Fig. 22. Addition tables to be printed on ta£ 
strips and used as flash cards. 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE TREND OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Twenty-five years ago the subjects now known under 
the head of industrial education were hardly thought of as 
part of the course of study for any schools, not to mention 
those of the country. Until very recently but little pro- 
gress had been made except in the larger centers. That 
the school should actually become a live institution and 
do things as they are done in the home, on the farm, or in 
the shop, is a very new idea. It has come about on account 
of the discussions at teachers' conventions, bankers' asso- 
ciations, and other business men's organizations. Women's 
clubs and conventions have favored industrial education in 
the schools, on account of the direct influence of this work 
on the future welfare of the individual. 

The stamp of culture and refinement is no longer placed 
upon only those who wear white collars or silk dresses. 
Neither are we looking for the former Bostonian kind to 
mutilate the language. The young man from college who 
stands around in his patent leather shoes and up-turned 
trousers, with the latest bow on the hat stuck on one side 
of his enlarged head, telling what he has done in athletics, 
while his father milks the cows and hoes the garden, should 
consult his Latin "pony" for the derivation of the word 
"culture." The young woman who is content to play the 
piano and receive "guests," while her mother scrubs the 
floors and does the mending, need not expect a real man 
ever to become interested in her. Not that culture means 
drudgery; for it is just the opposite, but it does mean work. 
Modern society has no place for the human parasite. The 
young home-maker may be fortunate enough to have what 

202 



TREND OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 203 

help she needs for the ordinary house work; but, in order to 
direct this work intelligently, she must know how to do it 
herself. Such knowledge cannot be obtained from books 
alone. The great "captains of industry" realize this truth, 
when they train those who are to manage units of their 
business by requiring them to "come up through the ranks." 
Even European monarchs have the same principle of "learn 
to do by doing" in mind, when they compel those who are 
to succeed them to serve in the ranks with ordinary sol- 
diers and sailors, and, in some cases, to work in the industries. 

During the last few years the movement for in- 
dustrial education in the public schools has gained such 
momentum that any progressive school must now satisfy 
the intellectual appetite of its students with manual train- 
ing, domestic economy, or agriculture, as part of their 
mental food. These subjects are not only permeating the 
higher institutions and secondary schools, but fast gaining 
ground even in the rural communities. Educators of the 
old school are fearful of the outcome of such a movement 
and bewail the loss of culture displaced by commercialism. 
Even the most ardent supporters of the movement are 
mindful that the educational pendulum sometimes swings 
too far, and are willing to pause for a readjustment. But 
the sooner we have passed entirely through the "fad" 
stage the quicker we shall reach a sound, working basis; 
for practically all are agreed that industrial education must 
become a fundamental part of the course of study of our 
public schools. Our entire educational system is gradually, 
but surely, undergoing a change with this end in view. 

A few years ago, while preparing a paper on "Is the 
Utilitarian Idea in Education Being Carried Too Far?" 
the author sent out a questionaire to a large number of 
persons representing all classes of society — professional men, 



204 RURAL EDUCATION 

business men, farmers and persons retired. The questions 
had special reference to the establishment of industrial 
courses in existing high schools, as teaching this work in 
the rural schools had not then been advocated in many 
communities. The answers received were extremely in- 
teresting in that they showed the general public to be alive 
to the educational questions of the day and to have an 
intelligent understanding of the needs of this class of 
schools. Among other things I found the following facts: 
That 52% of the school patrons, as far as the answers 
could be relied upon to reflect their views, regarded the 
industrial course more important than the academic course; 
that 80% favored both courses in every state high school; 
that, if only one course could be offered in smaller high 
schools, 55% preferred that it should be the industrial rather 
than the academic course; that 84% of those answering 
believed that high schools offering both courses should 
receive additional state aid. It is only fair to state that 
since these questions were sent out, the Putnam Act has 
been passed in Minnesota, giving state aid for industrial 
departments, and that most of the high schools of the state 
now offer industrial courses. The answers would be still 
more favorable, if similar questions were asked at this time. 
In the rural communities consolidation and association 
of schools will be the greatest factor in bringing about the 
change so much needed in the courses of study. Much is 
already being done in some of the single-roomed buildings, 
due, largely, to an energetic and enlightened teacher. A 
little foresight on the part of those planning a country 
school building would materially facilitate the work to 
be done. A semi-graded school of two rooms is t capable 
of special improvement. By putting a basement under 
such a building at a slight additional cost not only could a 



TREXD OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOX 205 

heating plant be installed, but ample accommodations could 
be provided for the industrial work. The two teachers, 
preferably a man for the one room, could offer manual 
training and agriculture for the boys, and a woman, for 
the other, could teach cooking and sewing to the girls. 
The work could be given as often as local conditions would 
permit, but at least once a week for each subject. It is 
probable that qualified teachers can be secured as rapidly 
as the demand for them increases. 

The public recognizes that book training alone is inade- 
quate to educate the child and is demanding a more 
practical education. Psychologists have come to the aid 
of the movement in declaring that industrial education is 
necessary during the early period of training, say to fifteen 
years of age, if the motor centers are to be fully, developed. 

The object of industrial training is usually given as two 
fold: To acquire actual knowledge and skill, and to develop 
character. Experience has proved that the new subjects 
are fulfilling their purpose and increasing the capacity 
for work. ''The hand is made the obedient servant of the 
brain." Hence, it is claimed the new subjects are entitled 
to a place in the course of study in all schools. 

Objection has been made that the schools are trying to 
teach trades, but arguments of the objectors will not stand. 
Teaching the constitution in history does not make lawyers 
of the students; a knowledge of interest and bank discount 
does not necessarily produce a banker; and a study of the 
electric telegraph in physics will not produce telegraph 
operators. But all of these things do produce more en- 
lightened and efficient citizens. So it is with the industrial 
subjects. 

Vacation schools have been opened in many of the larger 
centers for those boys and girls who do not have regular 



206 RURAL EDUCATION 

work to do. A large amount of the work clone in these 
schools is industrial. In some schools the students are 
allowed pay for part time or full time work. There is a 
minimum and maximum wage schedule, depending upon the 
age of the worker. This should be kept low enough that 
the sale of the products will pay all operating expenses. 
The balance, or profit, may be divided among the workers, 
after providing a sinking fund to pay for breakage and re- 
pairs. A card system of accounts must be kept by the 
students showing the time and wages per hour. This is 
excellent practice for students and provides work for those 
who might otherwise be idle. While vacation schools are 
probably practicable only in the larger places, the idea of 
putting students on a profit-sharing basis for industrial work 
done can be carried out in any school where the pupils are 
willing to work after school and Saturdays. The school 
farm, the manual training shop, and the home economics 
department in the high school are examples showing how 
some such a plan might be carried out successfully. Even in 
rural schools of two or more rooms the plan would not be 
impracticable, under the proper leadership. 

The subjects usually considered under industrial educa- 
tion are manual training, domestic economy, and agricul- 
ture. Manual training in its various forms was the first to 
be introduced into the public schools. It was established 
in Sweden, Germany, England, and other countries of Europe 
sometime before it appeared in the schools of America. 

Manual training includes not only the wood and iron 
work of the advanced grades, but also the paper cutting and 
folding, weaving with paper, felt, splints, yarn and other 
material, basketry, bead work, clay and other modeling, 
and the sloyd of the elementary grades. With a definite 
plan and amount of work to be covered in each of these 



TREND OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 207 

divisions, many good teachers are accomplishing much with 
a small outlay for supplies and a few good elementary refer- 
ence books. It is the unsystematic way in which some 
schools have pursued this work that has been largely respon- 
sible for opposition to it in some localities where it is called 
a u fad." 

Domestic economy not only teaches actual practice in 
cooking and sewing, but the whole subject of housekeeping 
as a profession is included. Serving, laundering, purchas- 
ing materials, study of textiles, dyeing, bacteriology, care 
of the sick, and other similar subjects have become part of 
this work. In some localities classes are formed for the 
women of the community and they work out a special course 
offered once or twice a week, as time permits. In this way 
they derive direct benefit themselves as well as keep in 
touch with the work done by their children in the regular 
classes. During the last few years domestic economy has 
become one of the most popular subjects in high schools 
and in the upper grades. In rural schools many teachers 
are serving hot lunches at noon, assisted by the older girls 
of the school, and sewing is being successfully taught. 

The work in agriculture in the public schools is more 
recent in America; but, stimulated by conservation con- 
gresses and legislation, there appears to be a growing de- 
mand for it in all classes of schools. The work usually con- 
sists of recitation and laboratory work in farm crops, animal 
husbandry, horticulture, farm accounts, farm management, 
sanitation, drainage, and other kindred subjects. This is 
supplemented by demonstration work on plots of ground 
connected with the school. These plots range from five to 
one hundred and sixty acres, but probably average about 
ten acres . In many places the success of these plots has 
been phenomenal. In others they have been total failures. 



208 



RURAL EDUCATION 



t S- ol» ~ a Ik 



Grass Plot 



Crab Apple. 
Plums 

Rhubarb 

Collection 6Z varieties 

Agricultural Plants 



5? £ £ 









La~> 



r*A Oats 



; A Oats 



h A Oaf. 



Natural Grove 



Gar den Crop 



Millet 



uaar Beets 



k A. Wheat 

F.fc 



'Nursery Nat 



± A. Wheat 



J- A Wheal 

Vll.et Chaff 



foASprmgRye, 



It A.Bar ley 



r C Corn — Minnesota ^zs 



r/ey 



Co 



TREND OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 209 

The result depends largely upon the person in charge. It 
takes tact, perseverance, and plenty of " elbow grease" to 
make the school plot successful. Some farmers are more 
critical than they should be; others are sympathetic, apprecia- 
tive, and willing to co-operate with the school. Seeds are 
sometimes distributed for home gardens under the direction 
of the school. Local and state contests stimulate interest 
in the home project work. In many sections farmers of the 
community set aside plots on which to test fertilizers and 
different crops. 

The splendid work being done by the industrial depart- 
ments of the schools in Minnesota and other states the last 
few years has given impetus to this movement. There is 
a general feeling that the liberal aid given these departments 
is money spent in the right direction, and that legislatures 
should provide for better rural schools. It is this class of 
schools more than any other that should now claim the 
attention of state and national governments. 

This is an age of conservation. The great conserva- 
tion congress held at St. Paul a few years ago was a land- 
mark in this new movement. But, to my mind, the great- 
est problem before us to-day is the conservation of the boys 
and the girls of the state for the rural community. It 
cannot afford to lose so many of its brightest young men 
and women. One of the best ways to keep them is to 
interest them in their environment by teaching them 
more subjects they can use and fewer that have no practi- 
cal bearing on daily life. 



14 



CHAPTER XVII 
GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 

Industrial work and vocational work are sometimes con- 
fused. They are not synonymous terms. Industrial educa- 
tion is the study of the work of the industries, and is usually 
taught through hand work representing some of the manu- 
factured products of these industries. It is work that has 
just as much a place in fundamental education as elementary 
history or geography, and should be grouped under the 
general head of "industry." Vocational work is that which 
is offered on account of its direct value to the individual in 
preparing him for his life work. Such education is offered 
in trade schools, normal schools, and other technical schools. 
Only occasionally is true vocational work offered in the high 
schools. Undoubtedly more of it should be given in these 
schools. In so far as home economics is made practical, 
and really prepares those taking the course to become home- 
makers, it is vocational. The teacher's training depart- 
ments, and the agricultural departments are, to some extent, 
vocational also. 

Education is largely traditional. It is only natural that 
industrial and vocational education should have to struggle 
for recognition. Ancient philosophy could not harmonize 
culture and industry. Culture, to the Greek, meant war 
and poetry. The Roman saw in culture, law and politics. 
During the Dark Ages there was no culture. The Renais- 
sance revived it only by a study of the ancient classics — 
Greek and Roman. The Reformation recognized it in 
religion. Only within the last half century, after a desper- 
ate struggle with the humanities, has science come within 
the sacred portals of cultural education. It remains for the 

210 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WOR& 211 

present generation to see in industry culture as well as voca- 
tion. America is beginning to learn that the old idea of 
culture is not true to our principles of democracy, and that 
it is entirely out of place in a great industrial nation. Many 
of the best minds are drawn from the professions into the 
industries, where the larger salaries are attractive. Ignor- 
ance of the industrial conditions of the country among so- 
called educated people is often ridiculous. 

The need of industrial education in the elementary 
schools, including the rural schools, is well stated by Cole 
in his "Industrial Education in the Elementary School". 
He says: "The purpose of the elementary school is to give 
such knowledge, feeling, and power as all citizens should 
possess. As far as it neglects industry, the school falls 
short of its purpose. Industry is among the departments 
of civilization about which everybody should know some- 
thing. Further social sympathy should be cultivated in all 
citizens, and social sympathy cannot be developed until 
all the world knows what most of the people do. Social 
efficiency, too, depends upon knowledge; for without some 
acquaintance with industrial affairs even those who are 
engaged in other pursuits are handicapped. They can- 
not intelligently co-operate with work which they know 
nothing about. The modern view of industry, as a stim- 
ulus to culture, a condition of higher standards of living, 
and a source of ideals, implies that it should no longer 
be neglected even in part by the elementary school." 

Industrial training in the elementary schools has been 
too much of the "hit and miss" kind. There has been no 
standard course of study — in fact, few standardized courses 
of any kind — and the resourceful teacher has given such 
instruction in industrial work as she could with the train- 
ing she happened to have. The two extremes could only 



212 RURAL EDUCATION 

be expected under such circumstances — talking about 
industrial work without doing it, and making certain unre- 
lated articles without instruction. Definite instruction 
should precede or accompany the industrial work. For 
example, when rugs are made from yarn, jute, or raffia, 
the students should be instructed as to where these ma- 
terials are prepared and what uses they have in the indus- 
tries. The same kind of instruction should be given for 
rattan and other materials. Some of this instruction can 
be correlated with oral and written language. 

The general industrial work should be given throughout 
the entire elementary course; but, as the work for the last 
part of this period is divided for the boys and the girls, the 
suggestions here given will apply particularly to the pupils 
of the First or Primary Division. Basketry and rope work 
may be given to the intermediate and advanced students 
to supplement their work in manual training and sewing. 
No attempt is made to classify the work in the order of 
taking it up, as that is best left to the discretion of the 
teacher; but it is well to begin with the simple forms of 
weaving and modeling before attempting basketry and 
other more difficult problems. The work should be varied 
as much as possible. Appropriate changes will suggest 
themselves for such special occasions as Thanksgiving, 
Christmas, birthdays, Valentine Day, Easter, May Day, etc. 

The time given to industrial work must depend upon 
circumstances. Some schools can give more time to it than 
others. Part of the time for the seat work should be devoted 
to industrial work for the primary division. All the pro- 
grams suggested in Chapter VIII provide for this work 
during the general period in the afternoon twice a week. 
The First Division pupils may remain during these two 
periods instead of being dismissed, if there is not sufficient 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 213 

time otherwise. The work is so interesting to the average 
student that the teacher can conduct several branches of 
industrial work at the same time and keep all pupils 
busy after they are once started on a project. 

The supplies needed will naturally depend upon the 
size of the school and the time given to industrial work. 
From five to fifteen dollars' worth will be enough for the 
general industrial work. The manual training and sewing 
materials of the advanced division should be paid for by 
the students. A suggestive list of materials and prices are 
given. They may be purchased from any general school 
supply house. For the First Division paper weaving ma- 
terials are needed. These may be purchased in packages 
in various sizes, with slits one fourth, one third, and one 
half inch wide, at about a cent for each mat. All the stand- 
ard colors may be obtained. Colored sheets should be pur- 
chased and strips cut with the scissors for more advanced 
weaving after the ready-made mats have been put together. 
Papers for folding and cutting may be purchased at fifteen 
to twenty cents a hundred squares, usually four by four 
inches, in colors. Looms may be made or purchased. 
Hammock looms are easily made by cutting heavy card- 
board to the desired size, rounding the ends, and cutting 
notches in them for the fastening of the warp. These 
are very inexpensive and are just as good as those that 
are purchased. Looms for rug weaving may easily be 
made in the school, if the students have manual training. 
All our schools in the associated districts have been sup- 
plied. A loom that costs thirty cents may be made for 
from three to six cents for the material. We made ours 
of oak one fourth of an inch thick. Pine or basswood 
will do. The two end pieces are each ten inches long and 
one and one fourth inches wide. Notches are made by put- 



214 RURAL EDUCATION 

ting the two ends together and sawing to a depth of one 
quarter inch, and one fourth of an inch apart. In these 
the warp is fastened for weaving. The ends are fastened 
together with two pieces twelve inches long and three quarters 
of an inch wide. These are fastened by sawing a slit in the 
ends of the end pieces, so that the side piece will just fit 
flat-wise. They are then nailed and glued. Holes are 
bored in the ends for the heavy wire to make the loop ad- 
justable in width. These wires are copper, three sixteenths 
of an inch in diameter, and may be bought at any hard- 
ware store. They should be cut fourteen inches long and 
have a loop made in one end for a handle. A wooden cross- 
piece similar to one of the ends may be made to slide along 
the side pieces. This will enable one to make the loom 
adjustable in length as well as in width. Flat wooden 
needles made from quarter-inch basswood, rounded off at 
one end, and a hole bored in the other for threading 
the material, can be made very easily, and they are bet- 
ter than the metal needles for the most of the weaving. 
These should be sandpapered down until they are a little 
less than one eighth of an inch thick, a half inch wide, and 
about ten inches long. With such a needle, the material 
may be drawn through the entire width of the rug at one 
time. Metal needles are needed for finishing the rugs and 
for working in patterns. See Figure 29. 

Rug materials are few or numerous as one desires. Col- 
ored rags from home are as good as anything for the practice 
work and cost nothing. They should be cut or torn into 
suitable lengths and widths. Roving is a very coarse 
weaving material, excellent for beginners, and may be 
purchased in colors at about seventy cents a pound. It 
should precede the finer materials. Carpet yarn may be 
obtained at about sixty cents a pound. Jute makes cheaper 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 215 

weaving material at from twenty-five to thirty cents a 
pound. Chenille, plain and mottled, is good for pattern 
work, or for the entire rug. It costs about sixty cents a 
pound. Macrame cord comes in balls, any color, and costs 
about fifteen cents a ball. It is used principally for ham- 
mock making, but is rather expensive. For practice, rugs 
may be made out of rags, raffia, or even corn husks, and 
save the expensive materials for exhibit work. All these 
materials are used for the woof of rugs and hammocks. 
For the warp to " thread" the looms, carpet warp may be 
purchased in colors at about fifty cents a pound. Brass 
rings for hammocks will cost about two cents a pair for the 
inch size. Smaller ones may be used, if desired. German- 
town yarn is beautiful for knitting caps, bonnets, mittens, 
leggings, etc., but is rather expensive for rugs. It costs 
about fifteen cents a skein. 

Basketry and raffia supplies may be furnished by the 
school or purchased by the students, as desired. Plain 
raffia costs from fifteen to eighteen cents a pound, and 
colored from forty to fifty cents. Rattan, or round reeds, 
will cost from thirty-five to eighty-five cents, depending 
upon the size. The medium sizes are used most, but the 
teacher should order by sending samples of the sizes de- 
sired. Flat reed for napkin rings and basketry costs about 
fifty cents a pound. Raffia and rattan may be dyed, if 
desired; but it is rather hard to get uniform tints unless 
one has had practice. The finished baskets and trays 
should be shellacked as soon as they are made. 

Clay for modeling comes in three forms — the flour, in 
bricks, and moist in barrels. The flour may be obtained 
in five-pound boxes at five cents a pound. The bricks are 
usually five pounds each and cost the same as the flour. 
Moist clay is a little cheaper when purchased in barrel 



216 RURAL EDUCATION 

lots. Some communities have near at hand clay that is 
good for this work, and costs only the labor of getting it. 

SUGGESTIVE COURSE, INDUSTRIAL WORK 

FIRST DIVISION, (1—3 YEARS.) 

The industrial work of this division will naturally come 
under several heads. I would suggest the following: Agri- 
culture, paper folding and construction, weaving, raffia and 
rattan work, and modeling. 

The agricultural work is necessarily simple, but it is, 
nevertheless, interesting and useful. It is discussed in 
detail in Chapter XXI. 

Paper folding and construction may precede or follow 
the paper weaving. A ruler, pencil, pair of scissors, and 
paste are needed. Make envelopes and boxes for seed and 
other collections in agriculture. Other objects from which 
a selection may be made are as follows: Small basket, 
doll's furniture, sled, Indian canoe, Puritan cradle, shaving 
ball or pad, needlebook, match scratcher, Christmas bells, 
windmill, May basket, carriage, house, barn, chicken-coop, 
picture-frame, bookmark, fan, Chinese lantern, circular 
marker, hexagonal box, blotting-pad, calendar, valentine, 
button box, tent, card and photograph holders, screen, 
flower holder, whisk-broom holder and pocket comb holder. 
The materials for these are common manila drawing paper, 
oak tag, cover paper and colored construction papers. 

Weaving is usually begun with paper strips and ready- 
made mats are given under materials for industrial work. 
Paper weaving may be followed by basket weaving with 
heavy folding paper, bookmark weaving, pencil tray, 
mats, boxes, napkin rings, match safe, pincushion, blotter, 
calendar and thermometer backs. After the paper weav- 
ing, loom work should be given. Rugs of rags, roving, 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 



217 



yarn, jute, chenille, raffia 
and other materials are 
made. Bed blankets and 
draperies for a doll's house 
may be woven. Ham- 
mocks, made of macrame 
cord on homemade card- 
board looms, may be hung 
outside the doll house. 
Doll caps, mittens, and 
leggings may be made of 
Germantown yarn on the 
loom and sewed to shape. 
See Figure 24. 

Raffia and rattan work 
should largely be done in 
the intermediate and advanced divisions. Raffia rugs, napkin 
rings, picture frames of cardboard wound in raffia, and 
raffia baskets may be attempted in the primary division. 




Fig. 24. Germantown yarn work of First Di- 
vision, showing caps, sweaters and leggings. 







■*,:,: 



Ir 



' ■' 







Figure 25. 



Making rattan trays and baskets on the school grounds. 
No truants in this school. 



218 RURAL EDUCATION 

Modeling is always of interest and its educational value 
is evident. A piece of oil cloth, or a square board, should 
protect the desk. When clay is used it should be prepared 
the day before. The children, of course, must be able to 
wash their hands after the work. Encourage outside work 
and ask the children to bring their products to school to 
show the others. Modeling is especially valuable in train- 
ing both hands at the same time. Begin with forms from 
life, as animals and plants, rather than the geometrical 
forms. Later these should be given, and the ball, apple, 
peach, pear, orange, banana, and other similar objects model- 
ed. A bird's nest and eggs, marbles, clay baskets, beads 
and ornamental vases, are some of the popular pieces. It is 
well to have in mind the following general divisions of the 
subject: 1. Modeling from objects present at the time. 
2. Modeling from memory. 3. Modeling from imagina- 
tion. 4. Design in modeling. Fruit modeling may be 
shaded with water colors and, when dry, given a coat of 
shellac which gives a very natural effect, if well done. 
Other objects may be colored in a similar manner. 

SECOND AND THIRD DIVISION WORK 

The general industrial work of these divisions should be 
raffia and rattan weaving, basketry, bead work, if desired, 
and rope work. The objects made may be varied. If 
manual training and sewing are given in these divisions, as 
they should be, there will not be much time left. A little 
basketry, however, and rope work should be given some- 
time during the course. Napkin rings of rattan and flat 
reed, baskets of raffia and rattan, collar boxes of rattan 
wound and fastened with raffia, serving trays of rattan and 
a wooden bottom, waste baskets of heavy rattan, and 
knots and splices in rope work, are all useful and practical 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 219 

lessons. The rattan work should be given a coat of shellac 
as soon as finished. It may be finished in colors or natural. 

Reference books are necessary for the best results in 
industrial work. It is impossible to give directions for 
making many of the articles suggested here, as space will 
not permit. The author has found the following list of 
books almost indispensable: Paper Sloyd for Primary 
Grades, by Rich; Industrial Work for Public Schools, by 
Holton and Rollins; Hand-Loom Weaving by Todd; Card- 
board Construction, by Tryborn; Hand Work, by Hoxie; 
Raffia and Reed Weaving, by Knapp; Clay Modeling, by 
Holland; and How to Make Baskets, by White. Bulletins 
on rope work may be obtained free from many of the agri- 
cultural colleges. 

Industrial work and geography should be correlated to 
the extent that the students should know where all the 
materials used come from and how they are used in the 
industries. Raffia is a light yellow material that is shred- 
ded off from the bark of a certain palm tree. Most of ours 
comes from the island of Madagascar. On account of its 
pliability and toughness, raffia is much used for industrial 
work, and also for rope making in the industries. Rattan 
is a kind of a palm that grows in the East Indies. It is 
peculiar in that it sometimes reaches one thousand feet 
in length, and is supported by neighboring trees. It grows 
in various sizes, but is seldom more than an inch in dia- 
meter. There are very few branches, sometimes none for 
two or three hundred feet. The different species are very 
useful in their native countries for plaited work, rope mak- 
ing, etc. Rattan is twisted into ropes and used for pur- 
poses requiring great strength. In this country it is used 
for basketry, rustic furniture making, etc. Jute is made 
from the inner bark of a tall annual plant native to the 



220 RURAL EDUCATION 

East Indies, but now grown in several countries for com- 
mercial purposes. The fiber is used for carpet making, 
canvas and rope. 

Directions for making a few forms of industrial work are 
given for those who have no other books, but as many 
reference books on industrial work as the school can afford 
should be in the library. 

1 — Single Paper Weaving 

Materials: Manila drawing paper for practice. Later, 
use colored papers for a variety. 

Directions : Use a square of any desired size from four 
to eight inches. Fold the bottom over to the top. With 




Figure 26. Paper weaving in First Division. Note different designs. 

a ruler and pencil make lines one half inch apart beginning 
one inch from the left side, and ending one inch from the right 
side. The lines should run to the folded edge of the paper, 
but end just one inch from the upper edge. With the scis- 
sors cut along the lines. Open the paper. You will have 
it cut into slits one half inch apart. Cut another piece of 
paper into strips one half inch wide and as long as the 
square just used. Weave the first strip over one and under 
the next strip in the square. Weave the second strip in the 
same way except that you weave under where you wove 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 221 

Over in the first strip. Continue until all the strips are 
woven. Other weaving may be done, using strips of any 
desired width and color, and working out various designs 
in the square. As stated elsewhere, these squares may be 
purchased all ready for weaving, if desired ; but it is cheaper 
to make your own, and the practice in ruling and cutting 
is also desirable. See Figure 26. 

2 — Paper Box 

Materials: Drawing paper, ruler and pencil, scissors, 
and paste. 

Directions : Draw on a piece of paper a square j ust double 
the size you want your box to be. Fold over the lower edge 
on the upper, then the lower edge on the crease, then the 
upper edge on the middle crease. Turn the paper half 
around and do the same. You will now have sixteen squares. 
With the scissors cut the lower edge of the two top squares 
and the upper edge of the two bottom squares. Fold, so 
that the four middle squares form the bottom of the box. 
Paste the corner squares on the inside of the box. Another 
box may be made in the same manner and used as a cover. 
Heavier paper may be used for boxes to store seeds and 
other agricultural products. 

3 — Paper Basket 

Materials: The same as for the paper box. 

Directions: If a square basket is desired, it may be 
made the same as the box. Then paste the handle to it, 
letting the ends extend on the inside of the basket. A 
better form is an oblong about six by eight inches. Rule 
and cut a paper this size, being careful to get it exact. Fold 
it into two-inch squares, as directed for the box. Turn 
the paper with the long side up and down. Cut the two sides 
of the upper middle square. Do the same for the lower 



222 RURAL EDUCATION 

middle square. Fold the corner squares over the middle 
squares and paste. Cut the handle and paste on the inside 
in the middle of the basket. After practicing with drawing 
paper, heavier material may be used for more permanent 
baskets. Two colors may be used, if desired. 
4— Paper Table 

Materials: Heavy folding paper, scissors, and paste. 

Directions: Cut a square twice the dimensions desired 

for the table. Fold it into sixteen squares, as directed in 

making the box. Cut along the bottom of the two upper 

corner squares and along the top of the lower corner squares. 

Fold the ends over the corner squares and paste securely. 

The bottom of the box just made is the top of the table. 

Cut out an oblong from each side beginning one half inch 

from the corners, making it about three inches long. This 

forms the legs. 

5 — Paper Chair 

Materials: Same as for the table. 

Directions: Cut a square having about three fourths 
as many inches on a side as you used for the table. Fold 
this into nine squares, as directed in the first numbers. Cut 
along the top of the lower corner squares. Cut along both 
sides of the upper middle square. Fold the upper middle 
square toward you. This forms the back. Now fold 
one of the upper corner squares over the other and fold 
the rest of the squares to form a cube. Paste securely. 
Strengthen the back by pasting a paper of the same size 
over it. At the bottom cut out oblongs from each side 
to form the legs, as directed for the table. The back may 
be ornamented or left square. 

6 — Paper Lantern 

Materials: Plain or colored folding paper, black paper, 
scissors, and paste. 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 223 

Directions: Paste half-inch bands of dark or black 
paper across the top and bottom of a six inch square of col- 
ored paper or paper tinted with water colors. Wall paper 
makes pretty lanterns. Fold the bottom over on the top 
edge. Cut half inch slits from the crease to the black paper. 
Form circles with the black edges, making the top and bot- 
tom of the lantern. Paste securely. Cut the handle of the 
same material as the circular strips, making it the same 
width and six inches long. Paste it to the lantern, and hang 
where the lantern will show to advantage. A cardboard bot- 
tom may be inserted, and a small candle fastened to it. 

7— A Jack O' Lantern 

Materials: Drawing paper and yellow construction 
paper, or tinted drawing paper. 

Directions: Draw an oval the shape of a pumpkin 
about three by three and one half inches, leaving a short 
stem at the top. Cut out. With this, trace another on 
yellow or tinted paper. Cut this out. Then cut holes for 
the eyes, nose, and mouth, and paste the colored paper over 
the other. Black disks of paper may be pasted on the pu- 
pils of the eyes, and triangles for the teeth. These may 
be used for invitations or hung up for decorations. 

8 — Halloween Fence 

Materials: Manila drawing paper and }^ellow tinted 
paper. 

Directions : Using a piece of drawing paper eight inches 
long and two and one half inches wide, cut out quarter-inch 
oblongs three and one half inches long, leaving a quarter 
of an inch at each end to represent the post. Cut out five 
of these, leaving four strips of paper for the boards. Do 
likewise on the other half of the paper. This will make three 



224 RURAL EDUCATION 



; . posts and four boards, between each, 

H with the posts projecting above and 

• below. Paste the fence to a sheet of 

; I colored mounting paper. On the top of 

J each post paste a small Jack 0' Lantern 

Figure 27. Halloween about one and a quarter inches in diam- 

fence, paper cutting . 

and mounting. eter. bee r igure 27. 

9— Christmas Bell 

Materials: Red construction paper about the weight 
of light oak tag, pencil and scissors. 

Directions: On a five inch square draw or trace a bell, 
having the widest part at the bottom, the width of the square. 
A rounded projection in the middle at the bottom represents 
the tongue, or clapper, of the bell. Cut along the outline. 
A small hole punched in the top of the dome will enable 
one to hang the bell. It may be used to send an invitation 
to a school entertainment. 

10 — Christmas Stocking 
Materials: Same as for number seven. 
Directions: On a piece of red construction paper 
draw or trace a stocking about eight inches long and three 
inches wide at the top, and foot. Cut along the line. This 
may also be used to send an invitation or to hang up for 
Christmas decoration. 

11 — Santa Claus 

Materials: Red cardboard, cotton, and metal fasteners. 

Directions: Trace the upper part of the body down as 
far as the waist line, making this part about five inches from 
the top of the head to the waist, and about three inches 
across at the waist. Cut out. Cut the arms and fasten 
with a brass fastener, one on each side of the body. Cut 
out the lower limbs about four inches long and fasten on 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 



225 



the under side of the waist line. Both the 
arms and legs will then be movable. Paste 
cotton on the head for hair and whiskers; 
on the hands for fur mittens ; on the waist 
line of the coat and above the ankles for 
the tops of the leggings. This makes an 
interesting Christmas decoration. 

12 — Roving or Yarn Rug 
Materials: Loom and needle, carpet 
yarn or string for warp, and rags, yarn, 
chenille, raffia, or roving for the woof. 

Directions: Thread the warp back 

and forth through the notches at the ends 

.„,. a of the loom. See that it is as tight as 

at Christmas. possible. Weave the woof over one 

strand of the warp and under the next, across the rug. 

Return, going under the strand you went over before, and 

over the next, and so on. If a long wooden needle is used, 





Figure 29. Raffia bag, yarn mat on a homemade Loom and a raffia mat. 



16— 



226 RURAL EDUCATION 




Figure 30. Roving and chenille rugs. 

it may be drawn across the entire mat at once, thus saving 
time. Colored borders and stripes may be used, or designs 
worked in. The loom can be adj usted to any size of material 
In a previous paragraph see directions for making a home- 
made loom. Keep the woof tight by packing it with the 
needle and fingers. When finished, remove and bind the 
ends of the warp with carpet yarn, or make a fringe. Raffia 
may be used instead of roving or yarn. See Figures 29 and 30. 

13 — Hammock 

Materials: Cardboard loom, macrame cord in two 
colors, a large darning needle, and two brass rings about 
three fourths of an inch in diameter. 

Directions: Fasten the warp into the rings which are 
attached to one side of the loom, and wind it around the 
ends of the loom over the notches, or through the holes, if 
those are used instead of notches. Any number of warp 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 



227 





ywKF 








w -f M v 1 


| 8 m,',gHR\ \tW_ 


^P^flMJn 


yffiSA 


'Hft 


. P JP^ 


*5ulW 


S "P 't ' ' 



Figure 31. A hammock made of macrame cord. 



strands may be used, from sixteen to twenty being common. 
After the warp is stretched tightly, begin the weaving with 
the same material used for warp. The woof strands should 
be about half as long as the distance between the two rings 
after the hammock is removed. Colored stripes may alter- 
nate or borders may be used. When finished, remove from 
the loom and make a fringe. 

14 — Reed Napkin Ring 

Materials: Wooden loom, number three or four rattan, 
number one rattan, flat reed and a knife. 

Directions: Make a small wooden base of basswood or 
pine two and one half inches square and a quarter of an 
inch thick. On this base draw a circle two inches in diam- 
eter. With the ruler find the perpendicular diameter, and 
place a dot at each end of it on the circle. Do the same for 
the horizontal diameter. Again divide the space between 
the dots into three equal parts, until you have twelve dots 
on the circle, the same distance apart. With a brace and 
bit, or gimlet, bore holes through the base at the dots. 
These should be a trifle larger than the size of rattan you 
want to use for the frame of the napkin ring. Cut twelve 



228 RURAL EDUCATION 

pieces of rattan about the size of a match and one and one 
half inches long. Place these firmly in the holes of the base. 
Using rattan a size smaller as a weaver, weave four times 
around the base, going inside of one upright and outside the 
next. The second time around weave opposite to the first 
time, and alternate each time. The weaver is moistened so 
it is tough and pliable. Pull it tight, and press firmly against 
the base. Next use flat reed for two layers and weave in 
the same way. Then weave four rounds more of the same 
size rattan as on the bottom. Fasten the last end securely. 
Pull the ring off the base, being careful not to leave any of 
the uprights in it. With number one rattan, bind the edge 
together firmly by fastening one end around the top of an 
upright, crossing to the next lower end, twisting around this 
end, crossing to the next upper end, and so on, until you 
have gone around the ring twice and finished binding each 
upright. Cut off the ends of the uprights. Your napkin 
ring should be strong and somewhat resemble a snare drum 
on the outside. Be sure to keep the material moist while 
working. See Figure 32. 

15 — Raffia Picture Frame 

Materials: Chartboard and raffia. 

Directions: Cut out a circle from the cardboard. It 
may be any desired size, but about six inches in diameter 
is common. Cut another circle in the center, leaving a hole 
in the middle about two and one half inches in diameter. 
Select broad, smooth raffia. Moisten it, and wind carefully 
around from center to outside. When finished, sew a braid 
of raffia around the outer edge, making a loop at the top by 
means of which to hang it up. Put in the picture. Oval 
or square shape frames may be made according to the 
individual preference. 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 



229 



16— Rattan Mat 

Materials: Number three rattan for spokes, raffia and 
number one rattan for weaving. 

Directions: For a six-inch mat you will need to use 
pieces of rattan fourteen inches long in order to make the 
border and fasten the ends. Cut eight pieces of the number 
three rattan fourteen inches and one piece eight inches, as 
it is easier to weave with an odd number of spokes. Take 
four of the long spokes and cut a slit one half inch long- 
exactly in the middle of each. Draw the other four long- 
spokes half way through these slits, making a cross. Put 
in the short spoke until the end shows on the other side. 
With a needle weave raffia over one and under the next spoke, 
starting in the center, until you have woven a little circular 
mat about an inch all the way round from the center, or two 
inches in diameter. You will thus make a firmer middle 
than you can usually get with the rattan. Now use number 




Figure 32. 



Rattan and raffia work showing serving tray, baskets, collar box, 
mats and napkin rings. 



230 RURAL EDUCATION 

one rattan for the weaver in the same way, and keep the 
seventeen spokes the same distance apart, until you have 
a mat about six inches in diameter. Now sharpen the ends 
of the spokes, moisten them so they will bend easily, and 
pass each one in front of the next spoke to the left, and push 
it down beside the second spoke, thus making a loop about 
two inches across and an inch high. Do this with each 
spoke until the border is finished. While the mat is moist, 
see that it lies perfectly flat. When dry put on a coat of 
clear or colored shellac. See Figure 32. 

17— Rattan Basket 

Materials: Number four and number two rattan, and 
plain raffia. 

Directions: Cut eight pieces of number four rattan from 
eighteen to twenty-four inches long, depending upon the 
height of the basket desired, twenty inches being a good 
length. Cut one piece an inch or two more than half this 
length for the odd spoke. Proceed as for the mat in number 
16, using the raffia center, until you have a four-inch bottom. 
Moisten the spokes, and turn each one up as you pass the 
weaver around it. Keep the weaving pressed down firmly, 
the spokes the same distance apart, and be very careful in 
shaping your basket, that it may be even all the way around. 
When through weaving, fasten the end securely. Make a 
border with the spokes as for the mat, only pass the spoke 
to the left in front of two spokes instead of one, and push it 
down beside the third. This will strengthen the top. Be 
sure the shape is good. Let dry. Shellac, natural or colored. 
See Figure 32. 

18— Raffia and Rattan Mat 

Materials: Number two or three rattan, raffia, needle. 

Directions: Moisten the rattan and begin a coil. 
Take a needle full of raffia. Wind the end of the coil for a 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 231 

short distance and fasten it together in a ring as small as 
you can draw it. Continue coiling the rattan, and wind- 
ing it with raffia. Wind from you. About every third 
wind, pass the needle between the ring formed and the 
next coil of rattan, thus fastening the rattan to the ring. 
The third coil is fastened to the second in the same man- 
ner and so on until the mat is completed to any desired 
size. Colors may be used for as many coils as you wish, 
making borders. This makes a soft, durable mat. 

19— Collar Box 

Materials: Same as for number eighteen. 

Directions: Make the bottom six inches in diameter, 
the same as the mat was made. Then turn the coils up to 
form the circular side of the box. If two pieces of number 
two or three rattan are wound together instead of one 
piece, the effect is more pleasing, and you will have a firmer 
box. Continue the coils until the box is three inches deep. 
Now make a cover in the same manner as the bottom was 
made, turning the edges up half an inch, so they will fit 
down over the box, when inverted for the cover. This 
may be fastened on, if desired. See Figure 32. 

20— Wastebasket 

Materials: A circular base of one half an inch of pine 
or basswood nine inches in diameter, heavy rattan for 
spokes, number seven or eight, and rattan about two sizes 
smaller for weaving. 

Directions: Drill a row of twenty-five holes one half 
an inch from the edge of the wooden base. Cut twenty- 
five spokes of heavy rattan about two feet long, and put 
them through the holes so that they extend about three 
fourths of an inch below. Using rattan about two sizes 
smaller as a weaver, turn the bottom side up, and weave 




232 RURAL EDUCATION 

six or eight rows around the 
spokes, as in basket weaving. 
Then fasten the ends of the 
spokes securely, making a 
close border. Now turn the 
bottom over, and press the 

F lg ure3:i. Rattan wastebaskets. board down firmly Oil the 

rattan base. Begin to weave 
above the board, keeping the twenty-five spokes the same 
distance apart, and shaping the basket as you proceed. 
Make to any desired height, usually about a foot, and 
fasten the top of the spokes as for the mats and baskets. 
Cut off ends of spokes. Colored rattan will make effective 
designs. Finish with shellac. See Figure 33 

21— Serving Tray 

Materials : Wooden base, pine or basswood, and rattan. 

Directions: Make a wooden base of half inch material 
in an oval about fifteen inches long and ten inches at the 
widest part. Bore holes for heavy rattan as for the basket. 
Make the spokes long enough to weave and fasten below 
and to make the tray about two inches deep with a close 
border on top. Weave with number five or six rattan and 
use number seven or eight for the spokes. This makes a 
very firm and useful tray. It should have two coats of 
shellac for finish, either dark or natural. See Figure 32. 

22— Clay Modeling 

Materials: Clay, oil cloth water colors and shellac. 

Directions: Prepare the clay the day before it is to be 
used. Do not have it too wet, just moist enough to work 
well. Knead until oily. Mould into shape of object 
modeled. If fruit, tint with water colors. Let dry. Shel- 
lac with natural finish. See Figure 34. 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 



233 




Figure 34. Clay work showing fruit and geometrical forms. 

23— Rope Work 

Rope is used so much on the farm that every boy, at 
least, should know how to take care of it, make a splice, 



^m ..,;■ ■■• ■ 


-'"": - — _ 


- 


"•41 






1 Fibers 


Si 




r# ^-.■■^^. ..'^^. 


Jt % 15 


5 ii 




1 Y&I^SJM 




V- 


4 ,.J 


! Jffo#grjB 


:: 1 Stran: 


| 



Figure 35. Showing the construction of rope. The fibers are woven into yarns, 
the yarns into strands, and the strands into rope. 



234 RURAL EDUCATION 





# 


^i^^^SK^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 


Four Strand 


Three Strand 






Cab/e ^ 



Figure 36. Strands are twisted "left hand" to form ropes and the ropes are 
twisted "right hand" to form a cable. 

and tie the most common knots. Rope is made from the 
fibers of several different plants, as manila, sisal, and com- 
mon hemp, flax, cotton, jute, and cocoanut fiber. These 
fibers are twisted in yarns, the yarns are twisted the oppo- 
site directions into strands, and the strands twisted in the 
same direction as the fibers, into rope. The opposite 
twisting keeps the rope from untwisting. See Figure 35. 

The strength of rope depends upon the quality of the 
fiber, the number of strands, the workmanship, and the 
kind of preservatives on the fiber. The strength naturally 
decreases with age, wear, and exposure. A safe load must 
be much less than the breaking strength, and for old ropes it 
must be a matter of good judgment. Rope should be kept 
in a dry place. If it gets wet, it must be stretched out 
straight to dry. A hardened rope may be made pliable 
again by boiling in soft water. 

"Whipping" is used to prevent the ends from untwisting. 
This is done by putting a string under a strand of the 
rope about three inches from the end and allowing one 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 



235 



r -a 





Figure 37. Whipping or wrapping the end of a rope, showing the first three 
steps in the process. 

end to hang loose. Wrap the other end of the string once 
around the rope, and then fold the loose end over. Con- 
tinue wrapping the string tightly around the rope and 
string until you have wrapped about half way to the end 
of the rope. Fold the loose end back to form a loop that 

extends a little 
beyond the end 
of the rope. 
Wrap the string 
around the rope 
and loop, and 
pull the other 
end until it draws 
the string under 
the whipping as 
far as possible. 
See Figures 37 
and 38 showing 

Figure 38. The final steps in whipping. the Operation. 




23G 



RURAL EDUCATION 




Figure 39. 



Forming the "bight' 
figure eight knot. 



or loop for a 




The figure 
eight knot is used 
for preventing the 
strands from un- 
twisting, and for 
forming a hand 
hold at the end of 
the rope or at any 
point between the 
ends. In making 
it form a bight as 
shown in Figure 

39, then move the 

Tend as shown by 
the arrow in Fig- 
w ure 39 until it is 
in the position 
shown in Figure 

40. Draw it up 
tight. 

The overhand 
knot is used for 
the same purpose 
as the figure eight 
knot and is made 
by forming a 
bight through which the end of the rope is passed. The 
loose knot is shown in Figure 41. 

The square knot is used for tying rope securely toge- 
ther. The knot may be tied by studying the illustrations. 
Cross the ropes as shown in Figure 42. Move end B as 
shown by the arrow until it is in the position shown in Fig- 
ure 43. Move ends A and B as shown by the arrows until 



Figure 40. The completed figure eight knot. 




Figure 41. The overhand knot before drawing tight. 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 



237 



$ A 




£# 


, .;.- 


\ 












f/ 






I 


^M. 





Figure 42. Crossing the knots to tie a square knot 




Figure 43. The second step. 




Figure 44. Forming a loop by crossing ends A and B. 



they are in the 
position shown in 
Figure 44. Be 
sure the proper 
end is nearest you 
at the point of 
crossing in the 
right hand. Move 
end B, as shown 
by the arrow, un- 
til it is in the 
position shown in 
Figure 45, and 
draw up tight as 
shown in Figure 
46. Both parts of 
one rope should 
be in front of or 
behind the other, 
as shown at points 
C and D in Figure 
45, not as shown 
at points E and F 
of the granny knot 
in Figure 47. 

The granny 
knot, shown in 
Figure 47, is of 
very little use and 
tends to slip under 
a pull. It is tied 
only by those who 
do not know the 



238 



RURAL EDUCATION 




Figure 45, End B brought under to complete the knot. 




difference be- 
tween it and the 
square knot. 

The bread-box 
knot, shown in 
Figure 48, looks 
very much like the 
square knot, but 
it is likely to slip. 
The difference in 
the finished knot 
is in the positions 
of the ends A and 
B, as can be seen 
in comparing Fig- 
ures 45 and 48. 

The slip knot 
is used when a 
loop is wanted 
that will slip up 
tight around an 
object. There are 
four steps in tying 
it. Hold the rope 
as shown in Fig- 
ure 49. Move the 
right hand so that 
point A moves as 
shown by the ar- 
row in Figure 49, thus forming a round turn in the left hand 
as shown in Figure 50, and allow the right hand to slip on 
the rope to point B. Move the right hand so that point B 
moves, as shown by the arrow, to the position shown in Fig- 



Figure 46. Pulling the square knot tight. 




Figure 47. The granny knot. A poor knot; note 
the difference between it and the square knot. 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 



239 




Figure 48. The bread-box knot. Similar to the 
square knot but apt to slip. 



ure 51. Draw the 
overhand knot 
that has been 
formed up tight, 
and the finished 
knot should ap- 
pear as shown in 
Figure 52. 

The slip knot 
and half hitch 
make a combina- 
tion that form a 
permanent loop 
that will not slip. 
Tie a slip knot by 
the method shown 
in Figures 49 to 
52, except that 
you start with the 
short end held in 
the right hand and 
the long part in 
the left hand. The 
slip knot is shown 
in Figure 53. 
Move end A as 
shown by the ar- 
row. A half hitch 
is thus made 
around the long 
end as shown in Figure 54. Complete the knot by draw- 
ing up tight as shown in Figure 55. 

The double bowline is used when a loop is wanted be- 




Figure 49. Starting the slip knot. 




Figure 50. The second step. 



240 



RURAL EDUCATION 




Figure 51. 



The point B in figure 50 has been passed 
through the loop. 




tween the ends of 
a rope that will 
not pull tight or 
slip. It is tied as 
follows: Grasp the 
rope as shown in 
Figure 56. Tie an 
overhand knot as 
shown in Figure 

57. Fold loop A 
back over the 
over-hand knot as 
shown by the ar- 
row, and then 
grasp the knot 
with the left hand 
exactly at point 
B as shown in 
Figures 57 and 

58. Hold the 
double bight se- 
curely in the left 
hand and draw 
that part of the 
rope which forms 
loop A through 
the double bight, 
as shown by the 
arrow in Figure 

Figure 53. Beginning the slip knot and half hitch. rr\ rnt • i j_ 

59. This knot 
may be tied through a loose ring. 

For splices and other knots see various bulletins and 
special books on this subject. 



Figure 52. The finished slip knot. 




GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 



241 




Figure 54- The hall hitch added. 




Figure 55. Completed by drawing up tight. 




Figure 56. Starting the bowline knot. 



IS 



proper way for use is called reeving. 

always has a becket or projection to 

fastened. In reeving blocks it is best to pass the rope 

through the blocks in the opposite direction to that in which 



The block and 
tackle is used for 
lifting heavy 
loads. The more 
ropes in the 
''tackle" the 
greater the weight 
that can be lifted 
with a given pow- 
er. Figures 60 
and 61 show how 
to thread double 
and triple blocks. 
The part of the 
rope to which the 
power is applied is 
called the fall- 
rope, and the 
block from which 
it passes is called 
the fall-block. 
The fall-block in 
Figure 61 is a 
triple block. The 
others shown are 
double blocks. 

Passing the 
rope through the 
blocks in the 
One of the blocks 
which the rope 



242 



RURAL EDUCATION 




Figure 57. The second step, or overhand knot. 




it runs when the 
blocks are in ac- 
tion. This saves 
pulling all the 
rope through the 
block. Fasten the 
rope to the beck- 
et and pass it 
over the sheave 
farthest from the 
becket and around 
thepulleysineach 
block as shown in 
the illustration. 

Common wood- 
en blocks with iron 
sheaves are used 
for all ordinary 
work. For very 
heavy work, such 
as stump pulling, 
special blocks 
with heavy hooks 
and straps may be 
obtained. In ord- 

The final step of the bowline knot. ^^ ^ ^ Qf 

the rope to be used, the number of sheaves, and whether 
a becket is desired should be explicitly stated. 

Steel blocks may be had, as, also, blocks of different 
construction for wire rope. 

All blocks and rope must receive the very best of care. 
Otherwise their efficiency will be considerably impaired, 
involving the possibility of both loss and danger. 



Figure 58. 



Loop A folded back as shown by arrow 
in figure 57. 




Figure 59. 



GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WORK 



243 




Figure 60. Simple 
and tackle." 



'block 




Figure 61. Showing another 
form of block. 



REFERENCES 

Agricultural Engineering by Davidson; Knots, Splices and Rope 
Work by A. H. Merrill; Knots, Hitches and Splices by H. W. Riley; 
Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book; The Blue Book of Rope 
Transmission; Rope and Its Use on the Farm by J. B. Frear (Min- 
nesota Agriculturual Experiment Station Bulletin 136) and Rural School 
Agriculture Bulletin No. 1, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
SEWING IN THE RURAL SCHOOLS 

The elementary work in sewing, where the teacher is 
prepared to give instruction, is no longer regarded as a 
fad even in the most conservative districts, as practically 
all recognize the value of systematic work of this character. 
The daughters for obvious reasons do not receive the do- 
mestic economy training in the home that their grand- 
mothers received. Hence the necessity of practical train- 
ing in the schools. Ultimately the school day should be 
divided into two sessions, one half the day being given to 
academic studies, and the other half to industrial work. 
The average community is not yet ready for this depart- 
ure, as public sentiment must support any successful course 
in the schools. In the meantime the general period of an 
hour twice a week should be devoted to sewing. 

The equipment needed for a rural school is not elab- 
orate. A thimble, needles, thread, emery ball, tape- 
measure, shears or scissors, one pair of buttonhole scissors, 
and the material used in the model and garment making. 
For some of the advanced work a sewing machine would 
save time, and the students would get the practice, if they 
could use one. Some rural schools rent a machine for all 
or part of the school year, as it is needed. Such an arrange- 
ment would not be expensive and would be desirable, if 
room in the school permits. 

A thimble must be used when sewing. Each child 
should furnish her own and have it fit the middle finger. 
A thimble made of silver, celluloid or aluminum is better 
than one of brass, for the latter may cause infection in case 
of a sore on the finger. The emery bag is filled with pow- 

244 



SEWING IX RURAL SCHOOLS 245 

dered emery, and may be purchased for five cents at any 
store. When the hands become moist and sticky., the 
needle does not push through the cloth easily, due to the 
rust formation. In such a case, polish the needle by run- 
ning it through the emery bag a few times. Scissors are 
large enough for school use, and may be purchased for 
twenty-five or thirty cents. Instruments under six inches 
long are scissors; those six inches or over are shears. 
These may be brought from home or the school may own 
enough for two pupils to use one pair. They must always 
be kept sharp, or they will neither cut easily nor accu- 
rately. Do not allow them to drop, as they may be loos- 
ened or even broken. It is well to remember that tools 
poorly taken care of will not give good service. 

Needles and thread must be used according to the 
work to be done. Mrs. Blair, in her Sewing Tablets, sug- 
gests the following: 

The size of thread used should be in proportion to the 
thread of the material, for coarse gingham, about number 
70, for fine soft muslin, number 100. It is always best to 
use a fine needle and thread for hemming, as the stitches 
show less. The following sizes of needles are commonly 
used with the corresponding number of thread: 

Needle Thread 

Number five Silkateen and Coarse Cotton 

Number seven Fifty- 
Number eight Sixty, eighty 

Number nine Ninety 

Number ten One hundred 

Number eleven One hundred twenty 

Number twelve One hundred fifty 

The correct length of a needleful of thread is from 
the tips of the fingers to the shoulder of the extended arm. 
Do not bite the thread; cut it with the scissors or knife. 



246 RURAL EDUCATION 

Thread the needle with the end of the thread cut off from 
the spool, as this will prevent knotting. Be sure to baste 
all seams before attempting to sew them. Where the 
dimensions of the material are given, the first is to be on 
the length of the goods, and the second on the width. 

Correct position for sewing is very important. The 
body should be erect, and both feet squarely on the floor. 
The light should come from the left unless the student is 
left-handed. Hold work high enough to be comfortable. 

The plan of the course in sewing is to begin with the 
fourth year, combining the fourth and fifth-year students 
for the elementary work, and the sixth and seventh-year 
students for the advanced work, doing half of the two- 
year course each year. This plan corresponds with the 
course suggested for the boys in manual training for the 
Second and Third Divisions. As there are usually not many 
students in a rural school in these classes, the teacher 
can conduct the work in sewing and supervise the boys' 
work in manual training at the same time. Instead of 
calling the work "first year," and "second year" for each 
division, it is given as "one year," and "other year," as 
it naturally alternates when combined in this manner, 
and what is first year work for one class, is not such for the 
next. The number of lessons required for each piece of 
work is based upon the general period of one hour. 
Naturally, some will work faster than others; so the time 
is merely suggestive for planning the work. 

CLASSIFICATION OF STITCHES 

WORK FROM RIGHT TO LEFT 

Basting is used to hold two pieces or two parts of one 
piece of cloth in the exact relation desired and used as a 
guide in sewing. The stitches are made over and under 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 247 

the material, working from right to left. If stitches are of 
uneven length, have long stitches over and short under. 



Figure 62. Basting stitch. 

Running is light stitching. The stitches are made the 
same as in basting, but are short and of even length. 



Figure 63. Running stitch. 

Gathering. For gathering the running stitch is used. 
When several inches have been gathered on the needle, 
bring the double thread from the eye of the needle, under 
the point and then under the eye, making the figure eight, 
and drawing the thread tight. Continue until material is 
held securely on the needle. To place the gathers, hold 
them firmly as they are on the needle, between the thumb 
and forefinger of the left hand, and with the index finger of 
the right hand at the back of the gathers, and the thumb on 
the opposite side of the material, bring out the tiny gathers. 
Then pull the material straight till the gathers are fixed. 

Backstitch. To make a backstitch, insert the needle 
and make a stitch under the material twice the desired 
length; again insert the needle, going back half this distance 
and forward twice the length of the backstitch. The back- 



Figure 64. Backstitch. 

stitch is used where strength is desired or to resemble ma- 
chine stitching. The second view shows a row of back- 



248 



RURAL EDUCATION 



stitches as it would be seen, if material were removed from 
the right-hand side of it. 

The combination stitch, or a needleful of running stitches 
and a backstitch, is used where more strength is required 
than obtained with running stitches. 



Figure 65. Combination stitch. 

Hemming. When hemming, hold the material over the 
index finger of the left hand. To fasten the thread, place 
the end of it about half an inch under 
the edge of the hem. It will be fastened 
by hemming over it. Keeping needle 
parallel with the edge of hem, take one 
thread of the material and one of the 
edge of the hem. Make the stitches 
of the same length and the same dis- 
tance apart. 

Buttonhole stitches are worked close 
together and used to finish raw edges. 
See "Buttonholes" for position of 
needle, position of thread and finished 
edge. 

To overhand two pieces of cloth 
together, hold the material between 
the index finger and thumb of the left 
hand so that the creased edges are in 
a horizontal position. The stitch is 
made by bringing the needle over and 
then straight through the two edges. 
Make stitches shallow and close together. Pull the thread 
tight for each stitch. 




Figure 66. Hemming. 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 249 







Figure 67. Overhand stitch. 

For hemstitching, pull six threads, fewer if the material 
is coarse, twice the desired width of the hem from the end 
of the material. Turn and baste the hem. Hold the ma- 
terial and needle as for hemming. Put 
needle under three or four threads and 
hold the thread as in making the chain 
stitch. Draw the thread tight. Make a 
stitch similar to hemming. This will 
Figure 68. Hemstitch, bring the thread to the middle of the 
next group of threads. Hold the thread down with left 
thumb, put the needle under the next group of threads, and 
continue as above. 

WORK FROM LEFT TO RIGHT 

Overcasting is used to keep the raw edges of the cloth 
from raveling. It is made by bringing the thread over the 
edge and putting the needle through the material. The 
stitches are an eighth of an inch in depth and the same dis- 
tance, or a trifle more, apart. 

//////////////// 

» — » 

Figure 69. Overcasting. 

The loop stitch is used to finish the raw edges of flannel 
or of doilies. See illustration. 



LLLilLLUJJJ 



Figure 70. Loop stitch. 




250 



RURAL EDUCATION 



WORK TOWARD ONE 



The chain stitch is an ornamental stitch. In making it, 
the thread is held to the left with the thumb to keep it under 
the needle. Always insert the needle within the last link. 




Figure 71. Chain stitch. 

The featherstitch is used for ornamentation. When mak- 
ing the stitch to the right, hold the thread to the left; 
when making the stitch to the left, hold the thread to the 
right of the general direction of the stem. Clusters of two 
or three stitches to each side may be made instead of the 
single one to each side. 




Figure 72. Featherstitch. 



WORK AWAY FROM ONE 

The catstitch is an ornamental stitch. It is also used 
in making flannel seams and hems. The row of catstitch 
grows in length away from one, but the needle is inserted 
toward one. 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 251 




*■ 



Figure 73. Catstitch. 

SECOND DIVISION. ONE YEAR 
1 — Stitches. (Six Lessons.) 

Materials: One piece of one eighth inch checked apron 
gingham sixteen inches by six inches, number 7 needle and 
red cotton thread number 50. 

Directions: Count down forty-two checks, fold and 
crease between checks. Knot the thread for basting only, 
fasten thread with short running stitches and backstitches. 

Basting Stitches. 1st row. Down from folded edge two 
checks, under two checks, over two checks, etc. 2nd row. 
Down from first row four checks, under one check over 
three checks. 3rd row. Down from first row four checks, 
under one check, over one check. 

Running Stitches. 4th row. Down from third row four 
checks. Make two stitches to a check. 

Backstitching. 5th row. Down from fourth row four 
checks, making stitches one eighth inch long, half way across 
practice piece. The other half, make stitches one sixteenth 
inch long. 

Combination, or running stitches with the backstitch 
for every needleful. 6th row. Down from fifth row, four 
checks. Make a needleful of running stitches, then a back- 
stitch, then the running stitches again, and so on. 

Chain Stitch. 7th row. Down from sixth row four 
checks. Make each link one eighth inch long. 

Catstitch. 8th row. Down from seventh row three 
checks. Make stitches across two rows of checks. Start 
at left-hand edge and work away from you. 



252 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Feather, or Brier Stitch. 9th row. Down from eighth 
row three checks. Make stitches across two rows of checks. 
Start at the right-hand edge and work toward you. 

Loop Stitch. 10th row. With the lower edge toward 
you, start at the left and finish edge with loop stitch. Make 
stitches two checks deep and two checks apart. 

2 — Needlebook. (Six Lessons.) 



Materials : One piece of art canvas five 
inches by three inches, one piece of flannel 
five inches by three inches, one tapestry 
needle number 22 or 23 ; one crewel needle 
number 7; silkateen. 

Directions: Loop stitch the edges of the 
canvas cover and the leaves. Sew the 
cover and leaves together with silkateen 
and tie the ends into a neat bow. The 
cover may be ornamented with one of the 
stitches learned. 

3 — Holder. (Four Lessons.) 



i h 1 1 1 1 



ffl 



Figure 74. Corner 
of needlebook 
cover. 



H 



Figure 75. A different Materials: One piece Of OUting flan- 
arrangement of cor- . . . , , , p i 

ner stitches. nel six inches by twenty-lour inches, 

number 7 crewel needle, and silkateen. 

Directions: Fold the strip of 

outing flannel double, having the 

two ends meet at the middle. Fold 

again. Baste around the three edges. 

Loop stitch the four edges, making 

, it comer the four corners alike. See needle- 

of holder. book cover. At one corner make 

a loop of two or three threads of silkateen, then loop 

stitch over them. 




SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 



253 




Figure 77. Fold material on dotted lines. 

4 — Hemming Dust Cloths, Towels, or Dishcloths. (Four Lessons.) 
Material: A yard of cheesecloth, for the first; thirty 
inches of linen toweling or a bleached flour sack — if large 
size, cut in two — for the second; one third of a yard of linen 
toweling, or a large sized bleached flour sack cut into four 
squares for the third. 

Directions: Turn one fourth inch hems, baste and fell. 
To turn the hem, hold the material so that the raw edge is 
up, turn the edge down about three sixteenths of an inch, 
starting at the right hand and working toward the left, 
if right-handed. Work in the opposite direction, if left- 
handed. Turn a one fourth inch hem, holding the material 

in the same position, 
and working in the 
same direction as 
when turning the 
edge. Baste and fell. 

5 — Stockinet Darning. 
(Six Lessons.) 

Materials : Darn 

woolen hose with 

yarn the same size 

as in the stocking, 

and cotton hose with 

darning cotton the 

same size as that in 

the material. Have the pupils bring their own stockings 




Figure 78. Stockinet prepared for darning. 



254 RURAL EDUCATION 

from home to darn. Use number 7 crewel needle for med- 
ium weight cotton and cashmere hose, number 5 or 6 for 
heavier weight yarn stockings. 

Directions : Cut away worn material, making a rec- 
tangular hole. Starting at one corner, make one row of 
running stitches around the hole about one eighth of an inch 
from the edge. Draw up the thread, leaving the hole a 
little larger than natural size. Tie ends of darning cotton 
for the child who is beginning to darn. Fill in the warp, 
allowing two threads for each row of stitches in the stock- 
inet. Care must be taken to leave the threads equally 
loose. Make running stitches three sixteenths of an inch 
into the stockinet at each end of the threads. When all 
the warp threads are supplied, begin filling in the woof by 
weaving over and under the warp threads. Always put 
your needle over the threads that the needle went under 
in the last row. Press the needle down close to the pre- 
ceding thread to make a close darn and to avoid drawing 
the woof threads too tight. Make running stitches into 
the material at the sides the same as at the ends. In a 
good darn there are raw edges on neither the right nor 
wrong side, and the edges are smooth and soft. 

6 — Gingham Sewing Bag. (Eight or Nine Lessons.) 

Materials : One piece of one eighth inch checked gingham 
twenty-four inches by eight inches; two pieces of tape, 
each twenty inches long and one fourth of an inch wide. 

Directions: Make a one eighth inch hem on each of 
the two long edges. At each end make a two-inch hem. 
Fold double, crosswise, right side in. With all edges even, 
baste through the hems at the edges. Begin overhanding 
the edges together just below the two-inch hems. Fasten 
the thread by sewing over three eighths of an inch of the 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 



255 



end of it. In overhanding, make your stitches shallow, 
close together, and draw the thread quite tight as you 
make each stitch. Fasten the thread at the end of the 
seam by making four or five stitches very close together. 
Remove bastings. Turn right side out, push out corners, 
and flatten out the overhand seams. Measure down one 
and one half inches from the top and backstitch or use 
running stitch, with a backstitch every third or fourth 
stitch. This makes a one half inch casing for the tape. 
Start one piece of tape at one edge of the bag and run it all 
the way around. Put the other piece in, starting at the 
opposite edge. Tie the two ends of each tape into a very 
small bowknot. 

7 — Buttonholes. (Five Lessons.) 
Material : One piece of one eighth inch checked gingham 
five inches by four and three fourths inches, number 50 
thread, and number 7 needle. 

Directions: At each end and on one side turn edge 
down one fourth inch. Divide the width into thirds, fold 
the raw edge in, and the turned-in 
edge over. Baste all four sides, keep- 
ing edges and corners even. The 
right-hand portion of a woman's gar- 
ment buttons over the left. Con- 
sequently, the buttonholes should be 
worked in the right-hand portion. 
Cut horizontally on the thread of 
the goods a medium-sized buttonhole 
one fourth inch in from the folded 
edge. Use buttonhole scissors. Hold 
practice piece in left hand so that the 
folded edge is to the left and the 
buttonhole runs along the length of the finger. Do not 




Figure 79. First stitch 
of buttonhole. 




Figure 80. Second stitch 
of buttonhole. 



256 



RURAL EDUCATION 






Figure 81. Position of 
needle for button- 
hole stitch. 





pull edges far apart, because they ought to touch 
when the buttonhole is worked. Insert needle one eighth of 
an inch from the near edge at right-hand end of buttonhole. 
Overhand the edges of the near edge 
of buttonhole; turn the practice piece 
so that the other edge becomes the 
near edge. Overhand these edges. 
Do not make the stitches close nor 
draw the thread tight. It is best not 
to overhand at the ends of button- 
holes. Turn the buttonhole half way 
around to its original position. At the 
right hand end of the buttonhole, in- 
sert the needle one eighth of an inch 
from the near edge. Take the two 
threads from the eye of the needle and 
bring them from the right toward the 
left under the point of the needle. 
Draw the thread quite tight. Con- 
tinue along the near edge of the button- 
hole, making the stitches close enough 
so that the threads barely touch one 
^ x v ^ ^ another. The outer end of the button- 

^llllllllllllllllMllliii hole is fanned. It must be carefully 

planned. One stitch extends from the 
end of the buttonhole. Space the 
other stitches. These are farther apart 
in the material and closer together 
at the corner of the buttonhole than 
the stitches along the edge, but they 
are of the same depth. After each stitch, 
draw the thread tight and in the direc- 
tion of the buttonhole stitch. The little knots or purls 



Figure 82. Position of 
thread for button- 
hole stitch. 

MIIMIILIMIJIIIIIIHII 



Figure 83. Finished edge 
of buttonhole. 



Figure 84. Rounded 
end, or fan, of 
buttonhole. 



1 




Figure 85. Pulling 
thread to make fan. 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 257 

at the end of the buttonhole must be closely packed, one 
beside the other. When working the fan, turn the piece 
gradually around, so that you always put the needle in 
directly toward you. Continue, buttonholing the second 
edge in the same way as the first. Finish the inner end of 
the buttonhole with a bar. Make two or three stitches 
the length of the first and last stitches. Work four or five 
buttonhole stitches over these threads, but do not take in 
any of the cloth. Buttonholes running lengthwise in a 
garment are barred at both ends. 

8 — Sewing Apron. (Twelve Lessons.) 

Materials: Use twelve and one half or fifteen cent 
checked gingham. One piece, twenty-four inches by 
twenty-two inches, one piece, the waist measure plus three 
inches by two and one half inches, number 7 needle, and 
number 60 or 70 thread for basting and gathering; num- 
ber 8 needle and number 80 thread for hemming, over- 
handing and backstitching; number 7 crewel needle and 
silkateen for the ornamental stitch. 

Directions : Make a one eighth inch hem at each of the 
edges of the large piece; a one and one eighth inch hem 
across one end. Have the three hems face the same side. 
On the right side ornament the wide hem with catstitch 
or feather stitch. Hold the right side of the apron toward 
you, the wide hem down. Turn this end of the apron up to 
form an eight-inch pocket. Baste at sides, keeping edges 
of hems even, then overhand. Next remove basting 
threads, press seams flat, turn pocket and push out cor- 
ners. Ornament the hem above the pocket with the same 
stitch as used on wide hem, and continue to the bottom of 
the apron. Divide the pocket into three equal sections and 
catstitch or feather stitch between them. Gather apron 

17— 




RURAL EDUCATION 

across the top. Baste to band, having 

fullness hang straight from the band 

1 1 1 1 J J J J I J J J J J I J J 1^: when worn. Use the backstitch when 

sewing it on the band. This seam faces 

Figure. 86. Needle in the wrong side, when the garment is 

position to make bar i i i - i m 

at end of buttonhole, made by hand. Turn the other edge 
of the band and fold over this seam, just to cover the 
stitches; turn in the edges of band beyond the edges of the 
apron, and at the ends of the band. Baste. Overhand 
ends and lower edge of the band at each side of the apron, 
and fell the band down across the apron. Ornament both 
edges and ends of band. Work a bottonhole in the right- 
hand end of the band. Sew a button three fourths of an 
inch from the other end. In sewing on a button the stitches 
should extend in the same direction as the buttonhole. 
The thread may be knotted, if the knot is put on the right 
side so that the button will cover it. Fasten the thread 
securely when the button is sewed on. 

9 — Hemmed Patch. (Three Lessons.) 

Materials: For the practice piece, or model, use one 
eighth inch checked gingham. One piece six inches square, 
one piece four inches square, number 7 and 8 needles, number 
70 and 80 thread. 

Directions: Cut the material between checks. Place 
the small square in center of large square so that the warp 
threads run the same direction in both pieces and so that 
white stripes fall on white stripes and colored stripes fall on 
colored stripes. Cut out a square in center of large square, 
eight checks smaller than patch. Cut diagonally through 
one check at each corner of this hole and turn back each of 
four edges one check. See illustration of hemmed patch, 
place patch over the hole, matching stripes and warp. Baste 



p 


7» 


1 
1 

1 

1 

1 


















Figure 
for 


87. Preps 
lemmed p 


iration 
itch. 



&EWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 259 

patch in place, two checks in from edge. 
Turn in edges of patch one check. Baste 
near the turned-in edge. Turn the other 
side toward you, and baste the turned-in 
edge to the patch. Hem this edge 
down; also hem around the patch on the 
wrong side. Overcast the edge of model. 
Use the coarser needle and thread for 
basting, the finer for hemming and overcasting. 

10 — Application of Hemmed Patch. (Three Lessons.) 

Materials: A gingham, or calico apron, dress, or grain 
sack; same kind of material for patch; needles and thread 
of suitable size. 

Directions: Cut out the worn portions, making a square 
or rectangular hole. If the material is figured, striped, or 
checked, match the design before cutting the patch. Allow 
one half inch on each of the four edges of the patch. Proceed 
as in the hemmed patch. 

11 — Hemstitched Towel. (Five Lessons.) 

Materials: One yard of huckaback or linen crash; num- 
ber 7 needle and number 70 thread. 

Directions: Draw six threads two and three fourths 
inches from each end. Turn in one fourth inch, then turn 
hem and baste securely, making sure that edges are even at 
ends of hem. Overhand ends of hems. Hemstitch hems. 

12 — Darning Thre'e-Cornered Tear. (Three Lessons.) 

Materials: A piece of light colored woolen material, 
ravelings of the same material, or thread to match, a number 
7 crewel needle, or a number 7 needle. 

Directions: Make a three-cornered cut in a piece four 
or five inches square. For the first darn the pupils should 



260 



RURAL EDUCATION 



use thread. Cut the cloth on the straight of the goods to 
get the ravelings. Use the crewel needle, if using ravelings. 
The stitches making the edges meet are not removed. Sup- 
ply the warp and woof threads. In crossing the cut edges 



i\ 



Figure 88. 

Making edges of three- 
cornered tear meet. 




«iiii|iiiiii::iiw^ 
Figure 89. 

Fanned three-cornered 
darn. 



Figure 90. 

Following warp and 
woof in the three- 
cornered darn. 



go over one and under the other alternate times. The corner 
may be fanned, or the warp and woof threads followed. To 
hold down any ends of the cut threads, finish the darn with 
two rows of running stitches, following the cut or tear. 
Make all the stitches very short. 

13 — Application of Three-Cornered Darn. 
(Two or More Lessons.) 

Materials: Garment with three-cornered tear, ravelings 
to match, number 7 crewel needle. 

Directions: Darn as for the three-cornered darn in 
Number 12. 

SECOND DIVISION. OTHER YEAR 
1 — Stitches. (Six Lessons.) 

Materials: The same materials are used as in Number 
1, Second Division, One Year. 

Directions: Follow the directions given in Number 1, 
Second Division, One Year. 

2 — Flannel Seam and Hem. (Three Lessons.) 
Materials: Two pieces of white flannel each eight inches 
by two and three fourths inches, numbers 7 and 8 needles, 
number 70 thread, sewing silk. 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 



261 




?w^- 



Figurs 91. The flannel 
seam and hem. 



Directions: Place the two pieces 
together so that all edges are even. 
Baste the two pieces together, the long 
way, one fourth inch from edge. Sew 
seam with silk, three sixteenths inch 
from the edge, using the running stitch 
with a backstitch for every needleful. 
Baste the seam open, and catstitch. See cut for Flannel 
Seam. Across one end of this practice piece turn toward the 
wrong side a one and one eighth inch hem. Baste near the 
folded edge; then baste hem near its upper edge. Catstitch 
hem. 

3 — Flannel Placket. (One Lesson.) 
Materials : One piece of flannel eight inches 
by five inches, number 7 and 8 needles, number 
70 thread, and sewing silk. 

Directions: Find the middle of either end, 
and cut three and one half inches into the 
material, following the thread. Hold the piece 
of flannel so that the right side is toward you 
and the opening at the top. On the right-hand 
edge of opening make a seven eighths inch 
flannel hem. On the left-hand edge make a flan- 
nel hem three eighths inch wide at the top and 
tapering to almost nothing at the bottom. 
Catstitch at the bottom of placket to strengthen 
it and to keep the right edge over the left. 

4 — Outing Flannel Petticoat. (Fourteen Lessons.) 
Materials. Outing flannel, twice the desired length of 
petticoat plus one third yard, one piece of muslin, the waist 
measure plus two inches, by two and one half inches, number 
7 needle, number 70 thread, number 7 crewel needle and 
silkateen. 



Figure 92.' 

Showing wrong 

side of flannel 

placket. 



262 RURAL EDUCATION 

Directions: Cut skirt by a two or a four-gore skirt pat- 
tern, allowing three inches for hem and from two to three 
inches for shrinkage. Make seams and hem as directed in 
Number 2 of this year's work. Cut a nine-inch placket in 
middle of back gore. Make the placket as directed in 
Number 3 of this year's work. If a sewing machine is obtain- 
able, the seams and band may be stitched on the machine, 
but must be done under the teacher's supervision. Use the 
silkateen for the catstitching. Find center front of the 
skirt and the band. Pin these two points together, lay the 
extra fullness in plaits at the back, and pin at the seams, 
making the opposite ones equi-distant from the center 
front. Baste the skirt together. This seam faces the wrong 
side of the petticoat. Sew the skirt to the band, using the 
backstitch and making the seam one fourth inch wide. 
Remove the basting thread. With the wrong side of the 
band toward you, turn the other edge of the band down one 
fourth inch. Fold the band toward the wrong side, just to 
cover the backstitching, pin in place, turn in the ends of 
the band, at least one fourth inch, and baste in place. Over- 
hand the ends of the band and hem the lower edge of the 
band in place. See Number 6, for button and buttonholes. 

5 — Buttonhole Practice. (Two Lessons.) 

Materials : The same as in Number 7, Second Division, 
One Year. 

Directions: The same as in Number 7, Second Divi- 
sion, One Year. 

6 — Making Buttonholes in the Band and Sewing Button 

on the Band of the Outing Flannel Petticoat. 

(One to Three Lessons.) 

Materials: Outing flannel petticoat, number 7 needle, 
number 50 thread, one pearl or vegetable ivory button. 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 263 

Directions: Cut one buttonhole in the right end of 
the band a little below the middle. Work as directed 
above. Make buttonholes in the band to correspond 
with the buttons on the underwaist with which the petti- 
coat will be worn. Bar these buttonholes at both ends. 
Sew on the button one half inch from the other end and 
slightly below the center of the band. See last part of Num- 
ber 8, Second Division, One Year. 

7 — Flannel Patch. (Two Lessons.) 

Materials: Two pieces of flannel, one six inches square, 
one four inches square, number 7 needle, number 70 thread, 
and sewing silk. 

Directions: Cut a hole three inches square m center 
of large square to represent the worn portion. Place even- 
ly over the hole, having the wrong sides of both pieces 
toward you. Baste near the edge of the patch, and near 
the edge of the hole. Catstitch patch in place and around 
the edge of hole. 

8 — Application of Flannel Patch. (Two Lessons.) 

Materials: A flannel garment, a piece to match for the 
patch, sewing silk to match, number 7 needle, number 70 
thread, sewing silk. 

Directions: Cut away the worn portions making hole 
rectangular, if possible. Cut patch one inch larger each 
way than the hole. Proceed as in Number 7. 

9 — Three-Cornered Darn. (Three Lessons.) 

Materials: Same as in Number 12, Second Division, 
One Year. 

Directions: Same as in Number 12, Second Division, 
One Year, 



264 RURAL EDUCATION 

10 — Application of Three-Cornered Darn. (Two Lessons.) 

Materials: Same as in Number 13, Second Division, 
One Year. 

Directions: Same as in Number 13, Second Division, 
One Year. 

11 — Double Hemstitch Towel. (Six Lessons.) 

Materials: Same as in Number 11, Second Division, 
One Year. Or use one and one half, or one and three 
fourths yards of material, and make a dresser scarf. 

Directions: Same as in Number 11, Second Division, 
One Year. Hemstitch along the other edge of the space 
where threads have been drawn. Take the same threads 
to a stitch as were taken in opposite stitch of the single 
hemstitching. 

12 — Sewed Seam. (One Lesson.) 

Materials: Two pieces of gingham, each eight inches 
by three inches, number 7 needles, number 70 thread. 

Directions: Baste these two pieces together, one 
fourth inch from edge. Use the running stitch with a 
backstitch for each needleful in sewing them together. 
Remove the basting thread, trim the edges, if raveled, and 
overcast the two edges together. 

13 — Gingham Holder. (Three Lessons.) 

Materials: One piece of gingham, calico or percale, 
twelve and one half inches by six and one half inches, 
four thicknesses of sheet wadding five and seven eighths 
inches square, number 7 needle, number 70 thread, silkateen. 

Directions: Turn in edges of piece of gingham one 
fourth inch. Fold double, crosswise, crease and insert 
wadding. Baste, keeping corners and edges even. Over- 
hand edges. Make two rows of running stitches, at right 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 265 

angles to one another at the center, to hold the wadding 
in place. Finish with a loop at one corner, as directed in 
Number 3, Second Division, One Year, page 252. 

14 — Gingham Work Apron. (Sixteen Lessons.) 
Materials: Apron gingham, twice the desired length 
plus one half yard, number 7 needle, number 70 thread. 

■ Directions: Remove selvages, cut off 

a three-inch strip the entire length of 
piece of goods. Cut from the three-inch 



I strip the ties, each twenty-seven inches 



Figure e 93. Diagram \ on & The band is the waist measure 

showing now to cut ° 

out apron. i ess two inches by two and one half 

inches, and is cut from the remaining portion of the three- 
inch strip. Cut the large piece crosswise into equal parts. 
Cut one of these pieces, lengthwise, into halves. The large 
piece is the front, and the two narrow pieces are the side- 
pieces of the apron. On each edge of the ties and one edge 
of each of the sidepieces of the apron make a one eighth 
inch hem. Make sewed seams in apron, a three-inch hem 
at the bottom of the apron, and a one-inch hem at one end 
of each tie. Gather the apron across the top and gather 
each tie at the end not hemmed. Sew apron and ties to the 
band. See Sewing Apron, Number 8, Second Division, One 
Year, page 257. 

THIRD DIVISION. ONE YEAR 
1 — Laundry Bag. (Six Lessons.) 

Materials: One and one half yards of white linen 
crash toweling, three yards of three eighths inch tape, num- 
ber 7 needle, number 70 thread. 

Directions: Make a two-inch hem at each end of the 
piece of toweling. In the hem make a row of backstitches 
one half inch from the hemmed edge, thus forming a casin 



266 RURAL EDUCATION 

for the tape. Fold double, crosswise. With edges on each 
side even and the hems even, baste together the edges on 
each side, beginning just below hem. Overhand edges 
together on each side. Fasten thread by sewing over the 
end of it. Remove the basting threads and turn right 
side out, push out corners, and smooth out overhand 
seams. Cut tape in two. Draw it into casing, starting 
one piece at each side and bring each all the way around. 
Sew up the two ends of each tape, making a felled seam. 
See Number 4, of this year's work. 

2 — Overhand Patch. (Two Lessons.) 

Materials: Two pieces of one eighth inch checked 
gingham, one six inches by six inches, one four inches 
by four inches, number 7 needle and number 70 thread. 

Directions: Match stripes and warp 

and cut away the supposedly worn portion 

the same as in Number 9, Second Division, 

One Year. Cut diagonally through two 

checks at each corner of the hole. Turn 

Figure 94. Over- the edges on each side of the hole down 

iSTdetaUs of °the two checks. Lay the piece thus prepared on 

work - the desk, wrong side up. Place the patch 

evenly over the hole matching stripes and warp. Turn 

the edges down two checks on each side of patch. (When 

turning an edge always turn it toward yourself.) Then 

place the patch in the space it is to fill, matching stripes 

and warp. Baste together the two edges that touch, the 

wrong sides out, and overhand these two edges together. 

Then remove the basting thread, baste the two adjacent 

edges, overhand, and so continue around the patch. Press 

the overhand seam as smooth as possible and overcast all 

the raw edges. 



O 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 267 

3 — Application of the Overhand Patch. (Three Lessons.) 

Materials: A garment in need of mending, a piece of 
the same material, number 7 needle, and number 70 thread, 
needle and thread, or silk suitable to use with material in 
garment. 

Directions: Remove worn portion, making a square 
or rectangular hole; fit the patch to it, matching the design 
and warp; and cut the patch one half inch larger than the 
hole on each of four edges. Proceed as in Number 2 of this 
year's work. 

4 — Felled Seam. (One Lesson.) 

Materials: Two pieces of outing flannel, eight inches 
by three inches, number 7 needle and number 70 thread. 

Directions: Place one of the pieces on the other, so 
that the ends are even and the one long edge of the under 
piece extends three sixteenths of an inch beyond the edge 
of the upper piece. Baste one half inch from the edge farth- 
est out. Stitch just outside of the basting. Remove the 
basting thread. Turn in the wider edge one fourth inch; 
then turn this part of the seam flat over the narrow edge 
of seam and baste the turned-in edge to the material. 
Stitch very close to the turned-in edge. 

5 — Outing Flannel Nightgown. (Ten Lessons.) 

Materials: Three times the required length plus one 
yard of outing flannel, number 7 needle, number 70 thread 
and a sack nightgown pattern. 

Directions: Cut out all parts, allowing for the growth 
of the individual and shrinkage of the material. Make 
felled seam on the shoulder, under the arm, and in the 
sleeve, having the back come over the front. Hem fronts 
the desired length for opening. Stitch the two fronts 
together below opening. Hem the lower edge of sleeve and 



268 RURAL EDUCATION 

gown. Gather the sleeves at the top, and baste them into 
the armhole. If the sleeves are in correctly, stitch them, 
making a half-inch seam. Remove the basting thread and 
overcast the two edges together. Baste this half-inch 
seam to the adjoining parts of the gown, stitch again, one 
fourth inch from the overcast edge. Cut one piece as for 
a lay-down collar; sew it to the gown around the neck, 
with the seam toward the right side. Remove the basting 
thread, turn collar toward the right side of gown, and 
baste around the neck. Turn in the edge of the collar and 
baste it to the gown. Stitch. 

6 — Buttonholes. Review. (One Lesson.) 

Materials: The materials are the same as given in 
Number 7, Second Division, One Year. 

Directions: The directions for making the button- 
holes are the same as given in Number 7, Second Division, 
One Year. 

7 — Buttonholes and Buttons. (Three Lessons.) 

Materials: Nightgown. See Number 5, of this year's 
work, number 7 needle, number 50 thread, and six half- 
inch pearl buttons. 

Directions: Work six buttonholes as directed in 
Number 7, Second Division, One Year, in the right hand 
portion of the front of the nightgown. Sew buttons as 
directed in Number 6, Second Division, Other Year, on 
the left hand portion of the front of the gown to correspond 
with the buttonholes. Page 262. 

8 — Stockinet Darning. (Six Lessons.) 
Materials: The materials are the same as given in 

Number 5, Second Division, One Year. 

Directions: The directions are the same as given in 

Number 5, Second Division, One Year, page 253. 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 



269 



9 — Sleevelets. (Three Lessons.) 
Materials : One half yard of thirty-six inch wide muslin, 
or India linen, needle and thread to correspond with material. 
A "leg o' mutton" sleeve pattern with but one seam. 

Directions: Cut sleevelets sufficiently large to go on 
over dress sleeves and to reach from the wrist past the 
elbow, allowing for a three fourths inch hem at the lower 
edge, and a three eighths inch hem at the upper edge. Make 
a French seam in sewing the sleeve, and hem the upper and 
lower edges. 

10 — Hemming Curved Edge. (One Lesson.) 
Materials: Two pieces of fine muslin or India linen, 
seven inches by seven inches, number 7 or 8 needle, number 
70 or 80 thread. 

Directions: Choosing any one corner as the center, 
with seven inches as a radius, cut an arc of a circle. Turn, 
and baste a hem less than one eighth inch wide. Hem. 
11 — Cap. (Four Lessons.) 
Materials : One half yard of fine muslin or India linen, 
number 7 needle, number 70 thread, number 9 needle, and 
number 90 thread, and one piece of elastic to fit head. 

Directions: Cut a circle eighteen inches in diameter 
from the muslin. To cut a true bias fold the material so 
that the warp threads fall on the woof threads, 
then cut on the fold. Cut one and one half 
yards of bias strips seven eighths of an inch 
wide. Make a one eighth inch hem around 
the cap. Turn each edge of the bias strip one 
eighth inch under and baste it at each edge two 
inches from the edge, on the wrong side of the 
cap. Cut off the extra amount of the bias strip, 
allow enough with which to hem each end and 
stitch bias strip at each edge to the cap. 




Figure 95. 
Folding the 
material for 
a true bias. 



270 RURAL EDUCATION 

12 — Application of Patches and Darns. (Two to Six Lessons.) 
Materials: See Number 5, Number 10 and Number 
13, Second Division, One Year; Number 8, Second Divi- 
sion, Other Year; and Number 3, Third Division, One Year. 
Directions: For directions see the same numbers as 
for the materials. 

13 — Tray Cloth or Doilie. (Four Lessons.) 
. Materials: One piece of medium fine linen of the 
desired size, number 7 needle, number 70 thread. 

Directions: Draw six threads one and one half inches 
from each edge. See cut of Mitre Number 5, Third Divi- 
sion, Other Year. Baste hems and double hemstitch as 
in Number 11, Second Division, Other Year, page 264. 
14 — Buttonholes. (Four Lessons.) 
Materials: Garments brought from home, needle and 
thread of suitable sizes, the thread to match the color of 
the material. 

Directions: For directions see Number 7, Second Divi- 
sion, One Year, page 255. 

THIRD DIVISION. OTHER YEAR 
1 — French and Felled Seams. (Two Lessons.) 

Materials: Three pieces of muslin or gingham, each 
eight inches by three inches, numbers 7 and 8 needles, 
numbers 70 and 80 thread. 

Directions: For the French seam, baste the long edges 
of two pieces one fourth inch from the edge. Sew one 
eighth inch from the edge. Remove the basting thread, 
and trim the edges slightly, to remove all frayed edges. 
Turn the other side of material toward you and baste the 
seam just made within the seam. Stitch this seam one 
eighth inch from edge. For the felled seam, see directions 
for Number 4, Third Division, One Year, page 267. Make 
it one eighth of an inch wide. 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 271 

2 — Long Sleeved Aprons. (Six Lessons.) 

Materials: Three times the length from shoulder to 
bottom of skirt plus one yard of gingham, or print. If 
percale is used, add one half yard to three times the re- 
quired length, number 7 needle, and number 70 thread and 
a long sleeved apron pattern with straight lines. 

Directions: Cut out apron, allowing for shrinkage of 
cloth and growth of child. Make French seams, remem- 
bering that the first time they are basted toward the right 
side of the material. Sew in the sleeves; finish the neck 
and bottom the same as the nightgown, when the two 
edges in the back have been hemmed. Make two pockets, 
each seven inches by six inches. Sew one pocket on each 
side of the front of the apron. 

3 — Work Buttonholes in Apron. (Four Lessons.) 
Materials: Apron, number 7 needles, number 50 thread, 

eight one half inch pearl buttons. 

Directions: See Number 7, Second Division, One Year, 

and Number 7, Third Division, One Year. 

4 — Marguerite. (Seven Lessons.) 

Materials: One yard of muslin, two yards of lace with 
beading, one piece of linen tape three eighths inch wide, 
number 7 and 8 needles, number 70 and 90 thread, and 
corset cover pattern. 

Directions: In cutting out the material remember the 
marguerite slips on over the head, and that it is best not to 
cut it very low around the neck. Make a felled seam on 
the shoulder, a French seam under the arm, and a one 
eighth inch hem at the bottom, around the neck, and at the 
armholes. Make a felled seam when joining the lace. Sew 
the lace around the neck and armholes with the overhand 
stitch. Full the lace slightly under the arm in front of the 



272 RURAL EDUCATION 

under-arm seam. Have the right sides of the marguerite 
and of the lace face each other, with the lace on the thumb 
side, the side nearest you. Prepare a bias fold as directed 
in Number 9, Third Division, One Year, to fit across the 
back at the waistline. Baste in place and stitch. Draw 
a piece of tape long enough to tie around the waist through 
the casing formed by the bias fold. Draw the tape into the 
beading and tie. 

6 — French Hem and Mitre. (One Lesson.) 

Materials: A seven-inch square of medium fine linen, 
numbers 7 and 8 needles, numbers 70 and 80 thread, and a 
four-inch square of stiff paper. 

Directions: From one corner of the paper 
measure five eighths of an inch on each side, 
connect these two points with a straight line, 
and cut along this line. Cut one corner of square 
by this pattern. Turn each of the adjoining 



FifftirG 06. 

Mitered hem. edges one eighth of an inch, then a one fourth 

inch hem. Baste near the turned-in edge. Fold 

the hem back on one side and overhand the two folded 

edges. In a similar manner hem the other side adjacent to 

the mitred corner. Hem the mitre at the corner. 

6 — Application of French Hem. (Six Lessons.) 

Materials: Two napkins brought from home, numbers 
7 and 8 needles, and numbers 70 and 80 thread. 

Directions: Napkins have selvages on two edges. Cut 
the other two edges straight by the thread. Make a one 
fourth inch French hem at each of these two edges. 

7— Gingham Underskirt. (Eight Lessons.) 

Materials: Twice the skirt length plus three fourths of 
a yard of striped gingham, number 7 needle, numbers 70 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 273 

and 50 thread, one medium-sized pearl button, and a plain 
five-gore skirt pattern. 

Directions: Cut the gores two inches shorter than the 
desired length, three pieces across the material, each five 
and a half inches deep, for the ruffle, one piece, the waist 
measure plus two inches by two and a half inches for the 
band, one piece twenty inches by two and a half inches for 
the extension placket, and enough bias strips to face edge 
of ruffle and to finish seam at upper edge of ruffle. Make 
French seams in skirt, leave a nine and a half inch placket 
at the top of the back seam, join with sewed seams the three 
pieces of the ruffle and the bias strips. To face one edge 
of the ruffle with the bias strip, put the right side of bias to 
the wrong side of the ruffle, having their edges even, baste 
and stitch three sixteenths of an inch from edge. Remove 
the basting thread, turn the bias strip toward the right side 
of ruffle, baste at the edge, and turn under the upper edge 
of the bias strip. Baste and sew at the upper edge. Divide 
the ruffle into quarters and notch it; then gather it at 
its upper edge. Divide the lower edge of the skirt into 
quarters, starting at center back. Pin ruffle and skirt to- 
gether at notches, the wrong sides together. Baste the two, 
arranging the gathers evenly. Then baste the bias strip to 
the ruffle side of the seam just basted, having the right side 
of the bias strip face the ruffle. -Stitch, and remove the 
basting threads. Turn the bias over the seam and baste 
at its lower edge. Finish as at lower edge of the ruffle. To 
make the extension placket, place the piece cut for it on the 
wrong side of the skirt; starting at the upper end of the right- 
hand portion of the placket opening, baste in place; taking 
particular care at the lower end of the placket, sew; remove 
the basting thread; turn the other edge one fourth of an 
inch and bring it over the seam to just cover the stitches. 

18 — 



274 RURAL EDUCATION 

Baste, sew, and remove basting thread. To sew the skirt 
to the band, first notch the middle front of the skirt. 
Then notch the band one and one fourth inches to one side 
of the middle. Place the band on the wrong side of the 
skirt. Pin the notches together, with the longer portion 
toward the left side of the skirt. At the back pin the skirt 
to the band, the left portion of placket extended, and the 
right portion turned back. Dispose of the extra fullness 
by gathering or laying it in plaits, whichever way is the 
most desirable. Remember that the skirt must hang straight 
from the band. Baste, and stitch the skirt to the band. 
Continue as directed in Number 4, Second Division, Other 
Year. Work a buttonhole in the right-hand end of the 
band and sew the button on the band at the left-hand end. 
Have the ends of the band overlap the width of the exten- 
sion placket one inch. 

8 — Muslin Nightgown. (Eight Lessons.) 

Materials: Twice the length from the shoulder, at the 
neck, to the floor, plus one half yard of thirty-six inch mus- 
lin, two yards of lace with beading, one piece of one fourth 
inch linen tape. Numbers 7 and 8 needles, numbers 70 and 
80 thread, and a nightgown pattern. 

Directions: The pattern used in Number 5, Third 
Division, One Year, could be used, or a nightgown pattern 
with butterfly sleeves. One third yard less material is re- 
quired for the pattern with butterfly sleeves. If the pattern 
mentioned first is used, allow two inches at the center for 
fullness. Add three inches for hem to the required length. 
If it is necessary to piece the front on each side at the bot- 
tom, make sewed seams. (Make felled seams on the shoulder 
and French seams under the arm and in the sleeve.) Make 
a three-inch hem at the bottom, and a one eighth inch hem 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 275 

around the neck and at the lower edge of sleeves which are 
of elbow length. Gather the sleeves at the top. Baste 
sleeves into armholes, and fit them. If the sleeves fit prop- 
erly, sew them, making a three eighths inch seam. Over- 
cast the raw edges, putting a stitch through each of the 
gathers. Sew on the lace as directed in Number 4 of this 
year's work. There are, of course, no separate sleeves, if 
the butterfly pattern is used. 

9 — Sofa Cushion Cover. (Four Lessons.) 
Materials: Two pieces of linen or cretone twenty-two 
inches by eighteen inches, two pieces each twenty-two inches 
by two and a half inches, thread to match, number 7 needle, 
number 70 thread, and four clasps. 

Directions: Face, with the narrow strips, one edge of 
each of the large pieces. Place the two large pieces with the 
faced edges together and the right sides so as to face each 
other. Baste and sew one fourth inch from the edge at 
the ends and the side not faced. Remove basting threads, 
trim slightly the two corners just stitched, turn, and push 
out the corners. Baste near the edge of the three stitched 
sides; baste a second time two and one eighth inches from 
the edge; and stitch two inches from the edge. Sew the 
clasps near the hemmed edges of the facings at the opening. 
The top may be ornamented with a stenciled design, crocheted 
motifs, or embroidery, if cover is of plain material. 

HOME PROJECTS 

To alter patterns: A plain gored skirt pattern, if it 
is too long, may be shortened by laying a plait across each 
gore at half the distance down from the top. Have the 
edges even at the front or the part of the pattern that will 
come on the straight of the goods. If the pattern is too 
large around the hips, lay equal sized plaits lengthwise 



276 RURAL EDUCATION 

through the middle of each gore. Sleeve patterns are re- 
duced in a similar manner. If a plain waist pattern is "long 
waisted," determine whether the extra length is above or 
below the bust line or both. Shorten the pattern where 
it is too long. If a pattern is too wide across the shoulder, 
make a lengthwise plait through the middle of that por- 
tion, and, if too wide under the arm, do the same there. 
If a pattern is too narrow or too short, determine where to 
enlarge. See above how to reduce. Cut the pattern and 
insert a strip of paper of the required width. 

Wash goods of linen or cotton and woolen goods should 
be shrunk before making up. A tablespoonful of salt added 
to each quart of lukewarm water used when shrinking 
the wash goods sets the color. When pressing the mater- 
ial keep the edges straight. 

If the material is figured, checked or plaid, decide which 
is up and which is down and cut all parts the same way. 

1 — A Pair of Drawers 

Materials: Muslin, twice the length from the waist- 
line to the bent knee plus six inches, two and a half yards of 
five-inch or six-inch embroidery, thread and needles of suit- 
able sizes, and a good pattern. 

Directions: Tear off a strip of the material at one end 
to straighten it, and pull the goods straight, if it seems 
uneven. Turn up the lower edge of the pattern five or six 
inches the width of the embroidery. Place pattern of goods 
with its lower edge on the straight end of the cloth and cut 
one part. To cut the corresponding part, use the piece 
just cut, placing the woof threads in it on the woof threads 
of the larger piece of cloth. Cut two pieces, one for the 
placket and one for the band the same as in Number 7, 
Third Division, Other Year. When sewing the (short) 



SEWING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 277 

seam in each of the two large portions, make a felled seam. 
Join with a felled seam the two portions, which should be 
pairs, having the two short seams meet. 

If the placket is desired at the back, leave the length of 
it when sewing this seam. Or, the placket may be made at 
either side. Make the placket and sew skirt to the band 
as in Number 7, Third Division, Other Year. Turn up the 
lower edge five eighths of an inch toward the wrong side. 
Baste near folded edge. Stitch, making a three sixteenths 
inch tuck. Cut the embroidery into two equal pieces, trim 
upper edge, if it is uneven. Match the pattern and join 
with a sewed seam. For convenience, later, divide each 
flounce into a fourth, starting at the seam, marking the 
upper edges with a notch or pin. Gather each flounce. 
Divide the lower edges of drawers into fourths, starting at 
the seam. Pin a flounce to the raw edge of each portion, 
placing seams together, also wrong sides, and notches. 
Baste, arranging gathers uniformly, stitch each three six- 
teenths of an inch from edge and remove basting threads. 
Turn the seam up and baste the tuck down over it and 
baste the tuck in place. Stitch in the very edge of the 
tuck. Finish the band with a button and buttonhole. 

2— A Wash Dress 

Materials: Select material that will launder nicely and 
that is suitable to the wear you wish to give the dress and 
of becoming color, the correct size of a simple pattern, of 
suitable style for a wash dress, thread to match the ma- 
terial, and buttons or No. 2 hooks and eyes. 

Directions: Styles change so frequently that but few 
general directions can be given. Study and follow direc- 
tions with the pattern. Fit pattern, alter if necessary, and 
lay all parts of it on the goods before beginning to cut. It 



278 RURAL EDUCATION 

is sometimes necessary to rearrange the parts of the pat- 
tern in order to cut goods economically. Make French or 
sewed seams in skirt depending on the material, an exten- 
sion placket as in Number 7, Third Division, Other Year. 
Baste the skirt to the band. See that the seams in the 
skirt hang straight, that it does not pull anywhere and that 
it is even at the bottom. Finish the band neatly at the 
ends, being careful to make the two edges of the placket the 
same length. When turning the hem, dispose of the full- 
ness of its upper edge by laying a small plait in the part 
of each gore that is on a bias. If one plait disposes of full- 
ness but makes the skirt longer at that place, make two a 
small distance apart. The lower edge of a plain gored 
skirt is uniformly curved, if the hem is turned correctly and 
no unusual alterations have been made to make it fit. 
Finish the waist neatly at the neck, the bottom, the lower 
edge of the sleeves, and where it fastens. When putting 
in the fasteners, whether it be buttons and buttonholes, or 
hooks and eyes, make sure that they will fulfill their pur- 
pose of keeping the garment properly adjusted. If the 
dress require a belt or girdle, sew fasteners in it. 

REFERENCES FOR SEWING 

Books : How We Are Clothed, Chamberlain ; Clothing and Other 
Textiles, Carpenter; Great American Industries, Manufacturies, Roch- 
eleau; Shelter and Clothing, Kinne and Cooley; Textiles, Dooley; 
Textiles, Woolman and McGowan; Sewing Tablet Series, Blair. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. : 
Flax for Seed and Fiber, No. 27; Silkworm Culture, No. 165; Angora 
Goat, No. 137; Sea Island Cotton, No. 302. 

Minnesota Farmers' Library: Industrial Contests for Boys and 
Girls, No. 3; Flax Growing, No. 27; Rural School Agriculture, No. 2, 
Revised. 



CHAPTER XIX 
THE HOT LUNCH 

So many ridiculous questions have been asked and 
statements made regarding the hot lunches served in schools 
that it is well to ask, What is the "hot lunch idea"? In the 
first place it is not serving lunches between meals during 
the forenoon and afternoon sessions of school, as some have 
imagined. Neither is it giving a course in domestic science. 
The hot lunch idea is a simple question of practical hy- 
giene. Farmers are careful of their feed for cows, and 
have heaters to warm the water for them to drink in cold 
weather, moved by no other consideration than financial 
profit. They know that the cows produce more butter fat 
under these conditions. Even heaters for cooking the hog 
feed in winter are employed as a matter of business econ- 
omy. And yet some of these same thrifty farmers will 
let their children walk two or three miles through snow and 
cold to school, eat a frozen lunch at noon, unless by good 
fortune it has thawed out, and trudge home again at night 
in time to do the chores before supper. 

The primary purpose of serving something hot at noon 
to those who carry lunches is, then, simply one of efficiency. 
Like the food for the cattle and hogs, the hot lunch has 
been found profitable, profitable from the standpoint of 
educational efficiency as well as physical betterment. The 
boy or girl who eats only a cold lunch day after day is not 
physically or mentally capable of doing the work that may 
be expected of them. 

Other advantages of the hot lunch plan are that the 
older students have an opportunity to do some practical 
plain cooking occasionally, without interfering with their 

279 



280 RURAL EDUCATION 

school work. The assuming of responsibility for preparing 
the hot dish to be served, the practice of serving, table 
etiquette, the brief study of food principles, are all very 
valuable training. It should not be thought for a moment 
that the whole meal is prepared at school. The children 
bring their lunches from home. One hot dish is prepared 
for all the students each day during the cold weather. 
Even if this were nothing but a hot drink of milk or cocoa, 
it would be well worth while, but it is entirely unnecessary 
to limit the dishes that can be served to a few of which the 
children will soon tire. The kinds of prepared food which 
one can carry in a lunch basket are limited. The hot dish 
gives variety and increases the nutritive value of the lunch. 

The equipment for serving hot lunches need not be 
extensive. A cupboard with doors, made by the older 
boys of the school, provides a place for dishes, cooking 
utensils and supplies. The one shown in the picture is 
similar to several others that were made out of a dry goods 
box. Shelves were put in and curtains hung over the 
front. Doors would be more sanitary than curtains, how- 
ever. Each child is asked to bring a cup, saucer, fork and 
spoon. These remain during the hot lunch season, from 
November to April, when the weather is unfit to eat out- 
side. It is also desirable, but not necessary, that each 
bring two napkins — one to be used as a table cloth on the 
desk. Paper napkins may be purchased out of a general 
fund, if desirable. Others should be washed as often as 
necessary or exchanged for clean ones at home. Coffee 
cans or fruit jars can be obtained in which to keep the 
staple supplies, as flour, sugar, salt, oatmeal, cornmeal, 
rice, etc. 

The question of supplies is often raised. Where do they 
get the materials used by the students? Sometimes a levy 



THE HOT LUNCH 281 

of ten cents each is made for the purchase of groceries. We 
have found a more satisfactory way in which the students 
bring practically all the supplies from home. This is not 
difficult, as they can furnish large or small quantities — a 
quart of milk or one cupful, one potato or half a dozen. If 
a soup or some dish requiring milk is made, it is well to let 
one family furnish all that is needed for that day. It will 
not bring anything more until its turn comes again. This 
matter can easily be regulated by the teacher, and a record 
kept. If baked potatoes were the dish to be served, each 
could pick out his own potato and bring it to school the 
day it is to be used. A few cents each will provide the 
general supplies referred to above, or even they may be 
brought from the homes. There will be no difficulty in 
getting all the supplies, if the teacher is tactful and has 
the co-operation of the mothers. There may be home con- 
ditions in the community where it would be wise to have 
the children bring only vegetables. Other families can 
furnish the milk, butter, eggs, meal, etc. Plans should be 
made and the dish selected two or three days before it is to 
be served. As far as possible let the students make the 
selections. Two or three can be suggested by the teacher 
and one chosen. Change enough should be made to vary 
the nutrients from day to day. 

Housekeepers, or monitors, should be selected from 
the older boys and girls to serve for one week. Two are 
enough at once. In case the school is large, one or two 
more may be selected to help serve and to wash the dishes. 
These persons are responsible, but the teacher should 
assist and encourage them. The necessary preparations 
are made in the morning before school and at recess. One 
of the housekeepers can quietly get up and start the stove 
at whatever time the dish needs to be put on to have it 



282 RURAL EDUCATION 

ready by noon. The rest of the students will soon pay no 
more attention to this than to any other schoolroom ac- 
tivity to which they are accustomed. Little, if any, time 
needs to be taken to watch the heating or cooking process. 

Serving the hot dish is the most interesting part of the 
preparation. The children are always happy over it. As 
soon as dismissal is over, the pupils should take their seats 
for lunch. The monitors should then pass the napkins, 
the spoons or forks, and the dinner pails from home. 
The hot dish made in school is then served to each, and 
eaten with the lunch from the pails. The teacher should 
always sit and eat with the pupils. Encourage pleasant 
conversation. Sometimes she could have them discuss 
what they have for lunch and its uses. Nutrition, balanced 
diets, sanitation, good health, games for the playground, 
are suggestive topics for conversation. Table manners 
such as found in the best homes should prevail. At least 
twenty minutes should be used in eating the noon day 
lunch, and, if persons leave before that time, they should 
ask to be excused, as at any other table. Lunch plans for 
the next day are made. The lessons to be learned from 
these sources are well worth the little extra work required 
to conduct the hot lunches. 

Dishwashing follows the lunch, and is done by the 
housekeepers, changing each week. The water should be 
heated for this while the lunch is being eaten. The 
monitors remove the dishes, but each student is responsible 
for the crumbs near his desk. The dishes are washed, 
rinsed, wiped and put in their proper places in the cup- 
board. See that the mixing dishes are kept very clean. 
As soon as students get used to the routine of preparing, 
serving, and dishwashing, very little time will be consumed 
in these tasks. The boys should take their turns as well as 



THE HOT LUXCH 283 

the girls. The experience will be valuable to them also. 
The equipment here given is that which was furnished 
each of our Associated Schools. The two-burner kerosene 
stoves cost $5.95 each. The ovens, about $2.00 each, and 
the list of utensils about $1.50. Even this somewhat elab- 
orate equipment cost under ten dollars and will last for 
years. The stoves and equipment are used at farmers' 
club meetings, institutes, and other social gatherings at the 
school. Any live school can raise enough money to pur- 
chase the outfit if it is not furnished by the district. 

THE EQUIPMENT 

1 double burner blue flame kero- 1 cover to fit. 

sene stove. 1 wooden mixing spoon, (long 
1 single burner oven. handle). 

1 12-quart dish pan. 1 ladle. 

1 draining pan. 1 table spoon (metal). 

1 set of six muffin tins. 1 teaspoon (metal). 

1 large three-pint mixing bowl. 1 kitchen knife. 

1 small bowl. 1 fork. 

1 cup. (St. Dennis.) 1 Dover egg beater. 

1 dinner plate. 1 strainer. 

2 pie tins (1 large, 1 small.) 1 paring knife. 

2 asbestos mats. 1 graduated measuring cup. 

1 eight-quart granite kettle. 1 eight-inch omelet pan or skillet. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS 

Use level measures for both dry and liquid materials. 
If you wish to measure a spoonful of flour, dip a spoon into 
the flour and level off with the back of a case knife. Start- 
ing at the handle, push the surplus off as the knife moves 
toward the end of the spoon. Fill a cup or large measure 
by lifting the material into it with a spoon, or dish, then 
level off with a case knife. Filling a measure by dipping it 
into the dry material causes the material to pack. Always 
look up the table of measures when using a recipe from a 
new book. Abbreviations, measures and weights that will 
be used in carrying out the hot lunch idea are given. 



284 RURAL EDUCATION 

ABBREVIATIONS 

t = teaspoonful ; T = tablespoonful ; c = cupful; pt. = pint; 
qt. = quart; lb. = pound. 

MEASURES 

4 teaspoonfuls make 1 tablespoonful; 16 tablespoonfuls makes 1 
cupful; 12 tablespoonfuls of dry materials, as rice and rolled oats, 
make 1 cupful; 2 cupfuls make one pint; 2 pints make 1 quart; 4 quarts 
make 1 gallon. 

SAUCES AND THICKENING FOR CREAM SOUPS 

Thin Sauce Medium Sauce 

1 T of fat 2 T of fat 

1 T of flour 2 T of flour 

1 c of milk (usually) 1 c of milk or other liquid 

H t of salt \i t of salt 

A dash of white pepper A dash of white pepper 

METHODS OF MAKING SAUCES OR THICKENING LIQUIDS 

1. Use this method when all ingredients are cold and 
time must be considered. Place the flour and fat in a pan 
over the fire. Stir with a wooden spoon as the butter 
melts, and do not allow it to burn. A wooden spoon is 
acid proof, noiseless and does not become hot. When frothy 
add the liquid. Stir constantly and rapidly while it cooks. 
It is cooked when it does not taste of raw flour. Season. 

2. Use this method when liquid to be thickened is 
warm. Mix the flour and fat in a cup or bowl. With the 
knife place the mixture of flour and fat on the end of a 
wooden spoon and stir it into the liquid. It is cooked when 
it does not taste of raw flour. Season. 

3. Use this method when a small amount of fat is used. 
To the flour add enough of the cold liquid to make a smooth 
batter. Pour the batter into the boiling liquid. It is 
cooked when it does not taste of raw flour. Add fat and 
seasoning. 

Sauces and cream soups must be smooth and not lumpy. 
Should either show signs of lumping, remove from the fire 



THE HOT LUNCH 285 

immediately and beat the mixture with the Dover beater 
until smooth. Return to the fire, stirring constantly and 
cook until done. The thin sauce is suitable for creamed 
potatoes, macaroni, toast and rice. The medium sauce is 
used with vegetables less starchy than potatoes, and with 
fish. A cupful of sauce is needed for a pint of diced vege- 
tables when preparing a creamed dish. The medium sauce 
is also used in making creamed soups. An equal amount 
of the liquid in which the vegetable is cooked is added 
to the sauce. In some cases the vegetables are pressed 
through a sieve and added. Sauces can be kept warm, if 
covered tight and placed in a pan of hot water. 

CARBOHYDRATES 
Vegetables 

Wash vegetables, scrape or pare and cut into half- inch 
cubes. Place in cold water to prevent discoloration. Put 
to cook in boiling water, usually just enough to cover. 
Parboil strong flavored vegetables and add more boiling- 
water. When about half done, add a tablespoonful of salt 
to a quart of water. Cook vegetables until tender. A 
time-table is suggestive. The variety, quality, and age of 
the vegetables make the difference in the length of the 
time it takes to cook them. As soon as they are cooked, 
drain off the liquid and save it, if it is to be used. Cover 
with several thicknesses of cloth that the steam may es- 
cape, but the heat be retained. If a cover is placed over the 
kettle, the steam remains in it, and, as it cools, it makes 
vegetables soggy. Use the liquid in which vegetables are 
cooked, when making cream soup or creaming vegetables. 

In the process of cooking, the water dissolves the nutri- 
ents, and flavors are withdrawn from vegetables. Before 
combining the liquid in which vegetables have been cooked 



286 RURAL EDUCATION 

with milk or white sauce, add soda, the amount depending 
on the acidity of the liquid. Otherwise the milk will curdle. 

Cereals 

Cereals, like vegetables, are put to cook in boiling water, 
as they need to absorb much water in the process of cook- 
ing, because they contain but a small amount. Cook 
cereals in salted water directly over the fire for the first ten 
minutes stirring occasionally, so that the mixture does not 
stick to the bottom of the kettle or upper part of the double 
boiler. Place in lower part of double boiler in which is 
boiling water, and continue cooking for a long time. Long, 
slow cooking is necessary, because cereals contain a large 
amount of cellulose or woody fibre. This must be softened. 
Use from one to one and a half tablespoonfuls of salt to 
one quart of water. 

PROTEIN 

Eggs are readily digested, if cooked slowly, so that the 
white is tender. If intense heat is applied, the egg white 
coagulates quickly and is hard and difficult to digest. Sub- 
stances similar to egg white are found in lean meat, milk 
and cheese in larger quantities, but in vegetables and 
cereals in smaller quantities. If beef broth or meat stock 
is to be prepared, cut the meat into inch cubes, put it on 
in cold water and cook slowly. In this way it is possible 
to dissolve the nutrients and extract the flavors. If juices 
and flavors are to be retained in the meat, start cooking 
with greater heat, plunging meats into boiling water and 
later decreasing the heat. The heat of the boiling water 
coagulates the albumin near the surface, thus preventing, 
to some extent, the juices from escaping. This principle 
has been disputed by some authorities, but it is, nevertheless, 
generally accepted as being correct. 



THE HOT LUNCH 287 



SUGGESTIVE DISHES FOR HOT LUNCHES 

Fifty dishes that have been prepared and served in rural 
schools. Select from them. 

Note: The time for each recipe is an estimate of the time required to cook it 
with reasonably good heat, not to prepare it. Salt is added as directed in cooking 
cereals and vegetables when boiling either. Sauces are seasoned except when 
otherwise directed, as in creamed chipped beef. If recipes requiring a long time are 
chosen, there should be some place to heat them on the regular stove to save oil. 
A homemade fireless cooker should be used if possible as it will save both time 
and fuel. Where an oil stove only can be used, do not select the recipes that 
require more than a short time. 

1 — Baked Apples. Time: W 2 hours. 

Directions: Bake one apple for each pupil. Wash and 
core. Place in a granite pan, put a teaspoonful of sugar in 
the center of each apple and pour enough water into the 
dish to cover the bottom of it. Bake until tender. Apples 
are best if baked in a very slow oven for one and one half 
hours. 

2 — Cream of Tomato Soup. Time: 15 minutes. 

Re £ P c Strained tomato Directions: Thicken the milk 

Y2 c milk with flour and butter and add 

3 t floui- er seasoning. Heat tomato and add 

Yz t salt enough soda so that the milk does 

A dash of white pepper ^ curdle when gmal , amountg 

of each are combined. When ready to serve pour heated 
tomato into the thickened milk. Stir while pouring. This 
amount will serve one person. 

3— Barley Soup. Time: 10 to 12 hours. 

Re ^ P c7earl barley . Directions: Cook the barley 

3 c boiling water ten to twelve hours according to 

directions for cooking cereals. 
Add barley to reheated broth from Number 7 or other 
broth made for that purpose. This amount is enough for 
eight persons. 



288 RURAL EDUCATION 



4 — Rice Gruel. Time: V/i hours. 

Re 1 cl £ e ~7 • Directions: When washed, 

2y 2 c of boiling water cook the rice as directed for cer- 

lc of milk ea ] s# After the first ten minutes, 

Ys t of salt (scant) . , . ' 

cook coverea in improvised 

double boiler for one and one half hours. About fifteen 

or twenty minutes before the time to serve add the milk, 

and cover. Leave pan or kettle containing gruel in pan of 

boiling water. Add salt and serve hot. This amount 

will serve one and one half persons. 

5 — Creamed Macaroni with Cheese. Time: 2 hours. 

Recipe— Directions : Break the maca- 

3/2 package macaron . . - . 

1 c m iik rom into one and one half inch 

1 T butter lengths. Cook same as rice, in 
34 t salt two and one half quarts of boiling 

t > t aS rated V cn t ees^ ePPer Water t0 Which tW ° and ° ne half 

tablespoonfuls of salt have been 

added. Cook for two hours. Drain well, and cover with 

cold water and drain again. Make white sauce with the 

flour, fat and milk. Season, add grated cheese and macaroni. 

Cover and place in pan of hot water to keep hot. This 

amount is enough for seven or eight persons. 

6 — Meat Loaf. Time: 25 minutes. 
Recipe — 

2 lbs. of beef Directions : Use the meat from 

H dozen f c S r t k P et ° rbaC ° n Number 7. Chop it and the salt 
2 large or 3 small eggs pork or bacon, add the crackers, 

1/8 1 pepper crumbled fine, the salt and pep- 

per, and mix well. Moisten with left-over soup stock or a 
little hot water and butter, and add well beaten eggs. Shape 
into a loaf in greased baking pan. Bake until the egg is 
cooked. This amount will serve fifteen to eighteen pupils. 



THE HOT LUNCH 289 

7 — Beef Broth. Time: 4 to 5 hours. 

Recipe— Directions: Make broth the 

4 qte' cold wTter^ ^ da ^ before serving. Bone contains 
2 1 salt nourishment and flavor which 

I T eP e P a e ch C Tdiced onions, improves the soup. A shin or 
carrots, parsnips, and shank of beef (often spoken of as 

4 T^a^nTat a soup bone) containing equal 

amounts of lean meat and bone is 
best. Saw bone, and cut meat into small pieces. Put bone, 
meat and cold water into a kettle with a tight fitting cover. 
The water ought to cover the meat and the bone one inch 
deep. Add one half of the salt, the peppercorns, and, if 
desired, one third that amount of whole allspice. Heat 
contents of kettle slowly and simmer four or more hours. 
In some hot bacon fat in a spider cook the diced vegetables 
until brown. Put browned vegetables in soup kettle, also 
the small amount of water with which the spider is rinsed. 
Add remainder of salt. Simmer half an hour. The 
browned vegetables are used to add flavor and color to the 
broth. Pour broth through a strainer into large bowl or 
pan. Place bone, meat, and vegetables in other utensils. 
After rinsing kettle, pour broth into it. Cover kettle with 
cloth to keep dust out and let broth cool. There will be 
about three quarts of stock or broth. The next day remove 
fat from the top and reheat. Serve each pupil with one 
half or three fourths cupful of broth. Cover meat with a 
clean cloth to keep the dust out and keep in a cool place 
until it is used. 

8 — Bean Soup. Time: 10 to 12 hours. 

See Pea Soup Number 42. Use the same amounts and 
make in the same way. 

19— 



290 RURAL EDUCATION 



9 — Creamed Potatoes. Time: 45 minutes. 

R Tmedmm potatoes Directions : Make a thin sauce 

1 c milk of milk, fat, and flour and add a 

1 T flour P m ^ °f b°il e cl diced potatoes. See 

l^t salt sauces and cooking vegetables. 

eppei Enough to serve four persons. 

10 — Apple Tapioca Pudding. Time: 1}4 hours. 
Recipe— Directions: Soak tapioca over 

10 tart apples night in six cupf uls of cold water. 

1 c sugar Pare, core and quarter the apples. 

Juice oi 1 lemon 

Add the apples, sugar and lemon 

juice to the tapioca when it has cooked for fifty minutes. 

Cook until apples are tender. Serve with cream. This 

amount will serve sixteen to eighteen pupils. 

11 — Stewed Tomato. Time: 15 minutes. 

Recipe— Directions: Heat tomato, add 

V/ 2 c to 2 c of bread or butter, salt, pepper and bread or 

1 c soda crackers crackers. Break slices of stale 

y± t salt bread or crackers into half-inch 

Pepper to taste pieces. Serve hot. This amount 

will serve ten to twelve pupils. 

12 — Cream of Peas. Time: 30 minutes. 
Recipe — 
1 pt. canned peas Directions: An hour before 

3^boilfng water the y are wanted, open and empty 

3 c of medium white sauce at once a can of peas. Mash the 
Pepper to taste peag Add the ^^ water and 

salt. Make the white sauce according to directions in 
thickening sauces for soup. Combine mashed peas and sauce 
immediately before serving. This amount will serve ten to 
twelve pupils. 



THE HOT LUNCH 291 



13 — Creamed Peas. Time: 30 minutes. 
Recipe— Directions: At least an hour 

1 $ me n dil P Sce before usi "S the P eaS °P en ^ 
Y 2 1 salt empty the can at once. While 

l^Vsugai* 61, making the sauce according to 

directions for sauces, allow the 
peas to heat. Add the salt, sugar, and pepper to peas. 
Pour the peas into white sauce. Mix and serve hot. This 
amount will serve eight persons. 

14 — Mashed Potatoes. Time: 45 minutes. 

R ec ip e _ Directions : Prepare and cook 

6 medium sized potatoes as directed for vegetables. Cut 

% c hot milk .11 i t^ n 

2 T butter in halves only. Potatoes usually 

<4 * sa 1 1 * cook in thirty minutes. When 

JO white pepper , j j • n •,, 

tender, drain well, cover with 

several thicknesses of cloth and let stand for a minute or 
two to allow some of the steam to escape. In the mean- 
time put the milk on to heat. Mash smooth with a wooden 
potato masher. Add butter, salt, and pepper and enough 
of the hot milk to make light. Beat until white. This 
amount will serve eight to ten pupils. 

15 — Cocoa. Time: 10 minutes. 
Recipe— Directions: Pour milk to 

3/2 c water boiling water. Mix cocoa and 

It cocoa sugar in a cup. When liquid is 

about to boil, add enough of it 
to cocoa and sugar to make smooth. Pour this mixture 
into boiling liquid. Cook for five minutes. Acid proof 
utensils as enamel or granite ware which is not chipped, 
silver and wooden spoons must be used or color of cocoa is 
spoiled. This amount will serve one and one third persons. 



292 RURAL EDUCATION 

16— Boiled Rice with Butter. Time: 2 to 3 hours. 

TTrice Directions: Clean, wash, and 

1 T salt drop rice into boiling salted 

water. Cook for two or three 

hours as directed for cereals. If steam escapes, more boiling 

water must be added, if rice tasted raw when cooked dry. 

Serve with butter, salt and pepper. This amount will 

serve eight pupils. 

17 — Egg Gruel. Time: 10 minutes. 

Tegg" Directions: Beat the egg while 

1 c milk milk is heating. When steaming 

hot, not boiling, pour slowly over 

beaten egg. Continue beating while pouring. Serve at 

once. This amount will serve two pupils. 

18— Baked Potato. Time: 1^ hours. 
Recipe— Directions: Wash and put 

1 per d pu^il iZed P ° tat ° potatoes to bake on grate in hot 

oven an hour and fifteen minutes 
before time to serve. Turn potatoes occasionally while 
baking. They are baked, if they feel soft when pressed 
between the hands. If not ready to serve at once, burst or 
prick with fork the skin of each potato, that the steam may 
escape. Otherwise they become soggy. Place in a clean 
towel to keep warm. 

19 — Vermicelli Soup. Time: 4 to 5 hours. 

Recipe Directions: Make required 

1 qt. meat stock ^ 

\i c vermicelli amount of meat stock, as directed 

K t salt in Number 6. Break vermicelli 

1 c boiling water . . . 

into inch lengths and cook for 

one and one half hours in salty water. Drain. Cover with 

cold water, drain again, and place in broth. Serve hot. 



THE HOT LUNCH 29! 



20 — Vegetable Soup. Time: 25 minutes. 

Recipe ■ Directions : Use vegetables in 

onions . 

carrots equal amounts or lessen or omit 

parsnips an y no ^ desired. Prepare and 

cook as directed for vegetables. 
Allow 34 cupful of diced vegetables to a person. To soup 
stock left from Number 18, add from one third to one half 
as much vegetable stock, the liquid in which the vegetables 
are cooked. Serve hot. % cupful to a person. 

21— Chop Suey. Time: 134 hours. 

Recipe— Directions : Cook spaghetti 

2 lbs. of beef . ... . t_ ° 

1 pkg. spaghetti the same as vermicelli in Number 

1 pt strained tomatoes 19 an d pu t it into the smoking 

2 t butter or bacon fat . . ° 
3^ t salt hot fat in spider and brown it. 

H ? P e PP er . Add the tomato and seasoning. 

Ys t celery seed . ° 

Boil lor two or three minutes. 

Serve hot. This amount will serve eighteen or twenty pupils. 
22— Corn Meal Mush. Time: 3 hours. 

T^qts milk Directions : Pour boiling water 

3 c boiling water into kettle. Put salt into it. 
1 c mnk WatGr ° r Make the cornmeal and cold water 
1 c corn meal or the cornmeal and milk into a 

smooth batter. Stir while pouring 

this into the boiling salted water. Continue cooking it for 

two or three hours as directed for cereals. Serve with 

milk and sugar. This amount will serve ten or twelve 

pupils. 

23 — Hot Milk and Bread. Time: 5 minutes. 

^AnoVM c to 1 c a person Directions: Heat the milk in 

Each pupil brings two or double boiler or an improvised 

more slices of bread 0n6; untfl & tm tigsue formg 

over the top. Serve at once. Pupils break the bread into it. 



294 RURAL EDUCATION 



24 — Cream of Cabbage. Time: 1 hour. 
Recipe— Directions : Remove the wilted 

1 T butter or very green leaves from the 

1 T flour cabbage. Cut into medium-sized 

M t salt . ° 

A dash of pepper pieces enough to fill a pint meas- 

1 pt. of cabbage ure or a CU p twice. Wash and 

put to cook as directed for vegetables. Cook uncovered for 
one hour. Add enough water to liquid in which the cab- 
bage is cooked to make one cupful and pour it into the 
white sauce. Serve hot. This amount serves four pupils. 

25— Steamed Soft Custard. Time: 20 to 30 minutes. 

Recipe— Directions : Beat egg in a bowl 

1 egg 

I c scalded milk until the yolk and white are 

I I sugar thoroughly mixed, and add the 

1 " 16tSalt G4.' U-l J J" 4-1, 

sugar. Stir while adding the 
scalded milk. Pour mixture into a pail with tight fitting 
cover or upper part of a double boiler, and place it in a 
pan of boiling water. Keep water hot, but not boiling. 
Allow to cook until you have a smooth custard that will 
cut with a knife and not stick to it. This amount will 
require cooking from twenty to thirty minutes. For a larger 
quantity a longer time would be necessary. This amount 
will serve two persons. 

26 — Creamed Corn. Time: 20 minutes. 

Recipe Directions : Make a thin white 

1 pt. canned corn 

I pt. thin sauce sauce by first method as directed 

I I sugar m sauces . Open a can of corn 
Salt and pepper ? . 

and empty it an hour before 

time to use. To do so will improve the flavor. Heat the 
corn, if necessary, and add a little water to keep from burn- 
ing. Pour the corn into sauce, add sugar, and salt, and 
pepper to taste. This amount will serve eight or nine pupils. 



THE HOT LUNCH 295 



27 — Scalloped Corn. Time: 35 minutes. 

R T tVof corn Directions: To the seasoned 

1 c medium white sauce medium white sauce add corn, 

V t salt ^ sugar and salt. Butter the baking 

3 T butter dish. Cover the bottom with a 

M c bread crumbs }ayer of CQm &nd gauce> Coyer 

this with a layer of buttered bread crumbs. Use stale bread 
crumbs. Place butter and crumbs in pan on stove, and 
stir until butter is melted. Continue until all is used. 
Have crumbs over the top. Bake in a medium oven for 
twenty-five minutes. This amount will serve eight pupils. 

28 — Cream of Celery. Time: 40 minutes. 

Recipe— Directions: Cut into inch 

1M cot celery . 

1% c boiling water pieces the coarse parts of celery 

JO salt after it has been thoroughly 

1 c medium sauce . . , 7,. 

cleaned, rut to cook m boiling 

salted water. Keep covered with water, and boil until 

tender, about thirty minutes. Press through a sieve, add 

enough boiling water to pulp, and of liquid to make one 

and one half cupfuls. Combine with sauce. Serve hot. 

This amount will serve five pupils. 

29 — Rolled Oats with Dates or Bananas. Time : 4 to 7 hours. 

Recipe— Directions: Cook rolled oats 

CO £b r er33 ° atS ^ iD as directed in Number 33. 

% c pitted dates or Shortly before serving add the 

3cmuk aS dateS whicn are best cut in 

fourths. Serve with milk and 

sugar. If bananas are used, peel, slice into a dish and 

sprinkle with sugar to prevent discoloration. Cover dish 

until ready to serve. To each service of rolled oats add 

two tablespoonfuls of bananas. 



296 RURAL EDUCATION 



30— Boiled Rice. Time: 2 to 3 hours. 

Recipe— Directions: Cook as directed 

1 c r i C e in Number 16. Heat the milk 

] T , sa S a little or just keep it in the room 

4 c boiling water . *_ 

so that it will not be cold. Keep 

it covered to protect it from dust. Serve rice hot with 

milk and sugar. This amount will serve eight to ten pupils. 

31 — Scalloped Potatoes. Time: 134 hours. 

Recipe— Directions: Wash, pare, and 

4 medium potatoes . • i , • i 

13^ c milk cut potatoes m one eighth inch 

1 t w+ slices into a buttered baking dish. 

2 T flour On each layer of potatoes sprinkle 
Pepper to taste f[ OUY} sa i tj an d pepper, and dot 

with bits of butter. Continue until all are used. Pour 
hot milk over the potatoes, but not enough to cover the top 
layers. Place in a hot oven and bake, covered for the first half 
hour, but uncover to allow to brown. Bake for another 
half hour or until tender when tried. Add more milk, if 
the potatoes appear dry. Serve hot. This amount will 
serve six pupils. 

32 — Creamed Chipped Beef. Time: 15 minutes. 

R T P c "medium sauce not Directions: Cut beef into 

salted small pieces, put it into a small 

V 2 c chipped beef (packed) digh ^ ^ gtand bdng heat _ 

ed. Cover with cold water and heat slowly. When hot, 
the meat will have soaked up half of the water. Make 
sauce as directed for sauce, but omit the salt. Pour the 
meat and water in which it has soaked into the white 
sauce. Add salt, if required. This amount will serve ten 
pupils. If desired, serve creamed chipped beef with boiled 
rice as prepared in Number 30, 



THE HOT LUNCH 297 



33 — Oatmeal Mush. Time: 6 to 10 hours. 
Recipe— Directions: Cook as directed 

1 c rolled oats in cooking cereals. Start cooking 

3 c boiling water at noon f t h e preceding day. 

Cook during afternoon. Set ves- 
sel where it will keep warm over night and continue cook- 
ing the following forenoon. Serve with milk and sugar. 
This amount will serve six to eight pupils. 

34 — Baked Custard. Time: 25 to 30 minutes. 

Recipe— Directions: Combine the same 

1 c milk . .._ . _ _ _. . . 

I e gg as in Number 25. Four into the 

I I sugar teacups and place them in a pan 
1-16 t salt scant . ... t 

of boiling water. .Place pan in 

very slow oven. Bake thirty minutes or until the point of a 
paring knife will cut it and come out clean. This amount 
will serve two persons. 

35 — Baked Hubbard Squash. Time: \y 2 hours. 

R On P e e ^ece about 4^ inches Directions : Wash and dry. Cut 
by 2y 2 inches for each the squash into halves, remove the 
person seeds and stringy portion, cut 

into pieces and place in hot oven either in a pan or on grate 
of oven. If the oven does not bake evenly, change pieces 
around. After an hour sprinkle with salt, and bake an- 
other half hour. Serve hot with butter, salt and pepper. 

36— Soft-boiled Eggs. Time: 8 to 10 minutes. 
Recipe— Directions : Place eggs in pan 

1 crater °^ boiling water, allowing one cup- 

ful to an egg. Cover and let stand 
where there is but little heat for eight or ten minutes, depend- 
ing on how soft they are desired. Remove and cover with 
cold water for a second. Serve at once. 



298 RURAL EDUCATION 



37— Baked Beans. Time: 10 to 12 hours. 

TptTbeans Directions: Pick over beans if 

3 t salt necessary, and soak over night in 

1 t sugar ^wo or three times as much water. 

2 slices salt pork In the morning put to cook in cold 

1 t molasses (scant) water to ^^ adding twQ tea _ 

spoonfuls of salt and the soda. Let boil ten minutes, drain, 
rinse with cold water and drain again. Cut pork, about 
one quarter of a pound, into half-inch cubes. Put part of 
pork in the bottom of the jar and the balance nearer the 
top after most of the beans are in the jar, add sugar, mo- 
lasses, and salt, unless pork is very salty. Cover with boil- 
ing water. Bake in a slow oven the balance of the day, 
and from early next morning continue baking them until 
noon. A regular bean pot or crock with a plate to cover it 
is used. Cook covered the last half hour, and uncover to 
brown. Beans should cook slowly from ten to twelve 
hours. If all the water is absorbed before they are cooked, 
add boiling water, but not enough to cover. This amount 
will serve eight to ten pupils. 

38 — Creamed Cabbage. Time: 1 hour. 

Recipe— Directions: Prepare cabbage 

1 ^cabba l^^ anC * C00 ^ * n ^ US ^ enou & n wa ^ er to 

cover. Toward the last allow the 

water to boil down to about one half a cupful. Pour cab- 
bage and liquid into sauce. Add more seasoning, if required. 
This amount will serve six to eight pupils. 

39 — Creamed Eggs. Time: 5 minutes. 
Recipe— Each pupil should bring a 

' Mfwhite sauce hard-boiled egg. Prepare enough 

white sauce to serve all, allowing 
one fourth of a cupful for each person, 



THE HOT LUNCH 299 

40— Beef Stew. Time: 3 to 4 hours. 

T\bs~of ribs Directions : Start to stew early 

2 qts. water in the morning. Proceed as for 

y\ flour fr ee ^ broth, brown part of meat 

5 t bacon fat before stewing it, and keep tight- 
^^S fy ~^red. Brown all the vege- 

potatoes tables, add them and cook fifteen 

6 pepper corns Qr twenty mhmtes more TMck _ 

en with flour, using the third method of making sauces and 
thickening soups. 

41 — Macaroni with Tomato Sauce. Time: 2 hours. 

Re S P pkg. macaroni Directions: Cook macaroni as 

1 c strained tomato in Number 5. With strained 

l T butter tomato, flour and butter make a 

% t salt sauce and season it as directed 

A dash of pepper for sauces. Pour the macaroni 
into sauce, heat for a minute or two so that macaroni will be 

hot. Serve. This amount will serve seven or eight pupils. 

42— Pea Soup. Time: 10 to 12 hours. 

Recipe— Directions: If necessary pick 

1 sli d ce y sai e t a pork 0Ver ' Soak ' m 01ie ^ Uart ° f Water 

5 c water over night. In the morning place 

2t Tt peas, soda, and one teaspoonful 

of salt in kettle with enough cold 

water to cover. Boil for ten minutes, drain, rinse and drain 

again. Add pork cut in half-inch cubes, one teaspoonful of salt 

and five cupfuls of cold water, cover and allow to simmer all 

day and the next forenoon. If too strong, add more water 

about half an hour before lunch time. Season with salt 

and pepper to taste. This amount is enough to serve a 

dozen pupils. 



300 RURAL EDUCATION 



43 — Scrambled Eggs. Time: 3 minutes. 

Recipe— Directions: Break the required 

1 ess 
l T hot milk number of eggs into dish and 

op hot water b ea t un t[\ yolks and whites are 

1 t bacon fat or butter . ^ . 

well mixed. Stir while adding hot 

water or milk. Place one teaspoonful of bacon fat or butter 

in a hot spider. When fat is hot, pour in egg mixture, and 

decrease the heat. As the egg cooks near the bottom of 

the pan stir the mixture. When cooked, the egg should be 

of a soft creamy texture. Allow one egg to a person. 

44 — Creamed Carrots. Time: 30 minutes. 

R TpWiced carrots Directions: Prepare carrots as 

1 c medium sauce directed for vegetables. Cook for 

^ sugar thirty minutes in just enough 

boiling water to cover. Allow the water to boil down 
toward the last. Turn carrots and the liquid they are 
cooked in into the white sauce. Add sugar. Serve. This 
amount will serve five pupils. 

45 — Mashed Turnips. Time: 2 hours. 

Recipe— Directions: Prepare and cook 

1 medium sized turnip the turnip as for the other vege- 

l\\ h u tte? ilk tables - Mash - Add milk, butter 

1-16 t pepper and pepper. This amount will 

Salt to taste gerve fiye Qr gk pupiR 

46 — Creamed Cabbage with Cheese. Time: 1 hour. 

R Tqt e Tabbage Directions: Prepare and cook 

1 c medium sauce the cabbage as in Number 38. 

X to V 2 c grated cheese Make gauce and to it a(W the 

grated cheese. Use stale cheese, as it is more easily grated. 
This amount will serve six to eight pupils. 



THE HOT LUNCH 301 



47 — Meat with Tomato Sauce. Time: 25 minutes. 

R Tc 'Seat packed Directions : Make a sauce with 

1 c strained tomato the tomato, flour and butter, add 

It flour* seasoning and boiled meat from 

H t salt Number 50, and cut into small 

Pepper to taste pieceg Cook ^ meat ^ heat _ 

ed, stirring, occasionally to prevent from burning. This 
amount will serve six to eight pupils. 

48 — Steamed Rice with Raisins, Milk and Sugar. Time: 2 to 3 hours. 

Tcrice Directions: Cook the rice for 

3 c boiling water ten minutes, using three cupfuls 

l T gJJt of salted water then add sugar 

1 T sugar and one cupful of milk and cook 

/2 c raisins £ or ^ wq Qr ^xree hours as direct- 

ed for cereals. Serve with milk and sugar. This amount 
will serve nine or ten pupils. 

49 — Buttered Beets. Time: 3 to 4 hours. 

Recipe— Directions: Wash and put 

1 /o c diced beets 
1 T butter beets to cook with skins. Do 

^ f s ^* , not cut the roots of beets, be- 

A dash of pepper . \ . 

cause in the process ol cooking 

they bleed too much and spoil the color and flavor. Boil 
from two to four hours. It is wise to wash the beets, and 
put the required amount of water in kettle the day before. 
Whoever tends the fire can put the kettle on, so that the 
beets can be put on about eight o'clock. Keep them boil- 
ing continually. When tender, drain and cover with cold 
water for a minute or two. Drain again. Remove skins. 
Dice, add butter, salt and pepper. Two medium sized 
beets diced amount to about one and one half cupfuls. 
This amount is enough to serve three pupils. 



302 RURAL EDUCATION 



50 — Beef Broth with Rice. Time: 4 to 5 hours. 

Recipe— Directions : Prepare soup stock 

y± t salt as directed in Number 7. Cook 

1 c boiling water r i ce f or tw0 or t h ree \ i0urs { n 

1 c of meat stock 

boiling salted water, as directed 

in cooking cereals. When cooked, drain well and add to 

soup stock. This amount will serve two pupils. 



, 








? . ■ 


f *> r i 






ft 


.„ . .^ s . ^^y^^jjy^^- 




/ ■ ;' 


: ; 'i 


jjjjr'Viiiiii *JL. 







Figure 97. Equipment for the hot lunch. Photograpn taken in a rural school. 
Note the improvised cupboard make out of a dry goods box and covered 
with curtain. 

REFERENCES FOR DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Books: Domestic Science: Principles and Application, Bailey; 
Boston Cooking School Cook Book, Farmer; Household Science, Shep- 
perd; How We Are Fed, Chamberlain; People's Health, Coleman ; First 
Lessons in Food and Diet, Richards; Human Physiology, Ritchie; 
Foods and Their Uses, Carpenter; How the World is Fed, Carpenter. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C: 
Meats, Composition and Cooking, No. 34; Facts About Milk, No. 42; 
Care of Milk on the Farm, No. 63; Milk as Food, No. 74; Bread and 
Bread Making, No. 112; Beans, Peas and Other Liegumes, No. 121; 
Eggs and Their Uses as Food, No. 128; Principles of Nutrition, No. 142; 
Cereal Breakfast Foods, No. 249; Preparation of Vegetables for the 
Table, No. 256; Use of Fruit as Foods, No. 293. 

Minnesota Farmers' Library: Dressing and Curing Meat, No. 11; 
Domestic Science in Rural Schools and Supplement, No. 19; Marketing 
Eggs from the Farm, No. 30; Farm Vegetable Garden, No. 17. 



CHAPTER XX 
MANUAL TRAINING 

How can manual training be taught in a one-room 
rural school? This is a question I have heard put in a 
disgusted tone by more than one skeptic. The most effec- 
tive answer I know is that it actually is being taught in 
many such schools with a degree of success unlooked for 
even by its most ardent supporters. Sewing for the ad- 
vanced students has become quite common in some com- 
munities, but when this subject is taught to the girls the 
older boys are left with only book work. Such an arrange- 
ment gives not only an unbalanced course, but it is con- 
ducive to " killing time" on the part of the boys. 

The fact that young women are teachers in so many of 
the country schools is another objection. Is it not absurd 
to expect a woman to teach carpentry? Yes, but we are 
not advocating teaching carpentry. That women can 
direct the manual training as outlined in this chapter as 
well as that young men can teach sewing to the girls, and 
that both can get excellent results, has been proved con- 
clusively by several of our own teachers in the associated 
schools by their exhibits at the annual industrial contests. 
It is not at all necessary that the teacher be expert in either 
of these subjects, but she should have had some elemen- 
tary training in both during the course that prepared her 
for teaching, so that the industrial work may be intelli- 
gently directed. 

Semi-graded schools, with two or more departments 
have better opportunities for carrying on industrial work. 
One teacher should be a man who can conduct the manual 

303 



304 RURAL EDUCATION 

training, and a woman should take the girls' work. The 
best country schools now have basements and ample pro- 
vision can easily be made for industrial training. The 
one-room schools, however, are rapidly passing. The 
model rural school will take into account more than "book 
larnin' " in the education of its students. 

The value of manual training in rural schools is still 
questioned in some communities. Usually, however, ob- 
jection comes from those least able to judge. The mere 
whim of some individual in the district, who probably has 
never had even a common school education, is sometimes 
sufficient to put a damper on this work or even to prevent 
its being done altogether. If manual training is a good 
thing for the town boy, and it is now generally conceded 
that it is, it is better for the country boy, as he is likely 
to make more direct use of it. After all, educators know 
that manual training is not only valuable because the 
articles made are useful, but because this kind of training is 
as necessary for a well rounded education as the training of 
the head in such subjects as arithmetic. How much of all 
the arithmetic that a boy studies in school does he actually 
use out of school? Very little. And yet a student often 
studies this subject eight years or more in school without 
mastering the little he does need to know. Does it not 
seem reasonable that part of this time spent on those 
parts of arithmetic that are not used out of school, could 
be profitably spent in applying manual training? The 
same statement is true of some other subjects. Experience 
proves that the boys who are best in manual training are 
also best in arithmetic. It is only reasonable that they 
should be. 

Requisites to the success of this subject in the country 
school might be summed up under a few heads, as follows: 



MANUAL TRAINING 305 

Encouragement, a work bench, a few simple and inexpen- 
sive tools, some lumber and other supplies, definite time 
for the work each week, some simple working drawings, 
and an enthusiastic teacher to direct the work. These are 
so important that each will be discussed briefly. 

A little encouragement from the parents, from the 
county superintendent, and from the teacher will go a long 
way toward getting a good start. The boys can be depend- 
ed upon to do their part. It is always best to reserve 
judgment until a new project has been thoroughly tried 
before condemning it. Parents, school officials, and teach- 
ers are all guilty at times. I often think of a blunt but 
nevertheless true statement made by a gentlemen who was 
discussing this topic with me. He said, "Any fool can 
criticise, but it takes a philosopher to plan and direct work 
that will bring results." 

A workbench can probably be made by the students 
themselves with a little help from the teacher or from some 
man in the community who is "handy" with tools. It can 
be made of pine, but should be strong and durable. Some 
of our students in the normal training department made 
their own benches to take with them to their schools. Such 
a plan is commendable, and can be done by persons who 
will teach near the school where they were trained. In 
another instance a board member, who had a set of car- 
penter's tools, offered to go to the school once a week and 
assist the teacher with the manual training. 

The tools needed are a try-square, hammer, backsaw, 
a few coping saws, plane, dividers, chisel, a ruler for each 
student, a brace and a set of bits, wood file, screw driver, 
crosscut saw, and a file and saw set for keeping the saws in 
shape. The district should buy the set of tools, but it is 
not necessary to wait for it to do so, if everything else is 



306 RURAL EDUCATION 

favorable. Students can bring tools enough from home to 
start, and the set will be all the more appreciated, if the 
six or eight dollars necessary to purchase it are raised by the 
school. An entertainment of some kind in which the boys 
take a prominent part will be supported by the community 
that is really interested in the welfare of its young people. 
The local hardware man will probably give a liberal dis- 
count on the list for the good of the cause. 

The supplies needed can be secured from a local lumber- 
man by the teacher or, better still, by the schoolboard. 
The boys may pay for the actual cost of the articles made. 
In this way the only cost of the manual training will be the 
initial cost of the set of tools. The teacher can readily esti- 
mate the amount of each kind of material needed after care- 
fully going over the list of stock given for the projects shown 
in this chapter. They will not all be given one year. After 
those that will be used have been selected from the list, 
determine the amount of lumber needed by the number of 
pupils there will be to make each project. It is well to have 
on hand a little more lumber than is actually needed for 
each article. The following kinds of lumber will be needed : 
Basswood, one fourth inch thick, and three eighths inch 
thick; pine, three eighths inch thick, one half inch thick, 
three eighths inch thick, one and one half inch thick, and 
one and three fourths inch thick; oak, one half inch thick, 
one inch thick, one and one half inches thick. By referring 
to the drawings and the material for each project, it will be 
seen what the dimensions are. If it is impossible to get the 
exact thickness wanted, get the nearest to it. The local 
lumber merchant will be glad to send for just what is needed, 
if he is advised a few weeks before the bench work begins. 
Lumber cannot usually be obtained as quickly as groceries. 
A few sheets of fine, medium, and coarse sandpaper should 



MANUAL TRAINING 307 

be kept on hand. This is cut into small pieces for use. 
The coarse should be used first, and the finest for getting 
the smooth surface. A bottle of shellac, a small brush, 
and a can or two of stain will complete the materials needed. 

The time given to manual training will naturally vary 
with the conditions. If possible, give two hours a week, 
although one period will be better than none. From three 
to four o'clock twice a week, while the girls are taking work 
in sewing, is the time proposed on the Three Division pro- 
gram in Chapter VIII. This is enough time in which to 
get the boys interested. They will usually put in extra 
time before and after school, if given the opportunity. 

Working drawings are necessary for accurate work. Those 
given here are simple, and can be easily understood. They 
should be studied very carefully before attempting to make 
the articles. Upon the ability to read the drawings and 
directions well will largely depend the success of the project. 

The teacher is not expected to do the work for the pupils. 
She should be familiar with the tools used, and know how 
to interpret the working drawings and directions. In this 
way she can see that the students understand just what 
they are doing. The arithmetic lessons can be made practical 
by supplementing with problems from the manual training 
exercises as well as from the hot lunch recipes and the sew- 
ing models. The language lessons can also be enriched 
from the same sources. Here is the teacher's opportunity. 

The student should study from reference books the use 
of each tool used and how to take care of it and keep it 
sharp. He ought also to know where each kind of wood 
used grows, how it is manufactured, and why it is used 
instead of some other kind of material. The same informa- 
tion should be obtained for all other materials used. This 
useful knowledge will make a basis for good booklet work 



308 RURAL EDUCATION 

in the language classes. Chapter XXV can be used as a 
reference for this work. 

The plan suggested for class work is the same as that 
for the sewing classes. The children of the First Division 
are too young for this work. They may either be dismissed 
or given simple industrial work. The boys of the Second 
Division, fourth and fifth years, should work together, and 
complete the first nine projects during the two years they 
are in this division, This amount of work may not seem 
to be much; but, if it is well done, it lays a good foundation 
for the advanced work. "Make haste slowly," and work 
for quality, not quanitity. The boys of the Third Division, 
sixth and seventh years, will constitute the other class, and 
they should complete the Jist of projects given during the 
two years they are in the division. If the school is not 
organized on the Three Division plan, I should then have 
the fifth and sixth-year pupils together in the first class in 
manual training and sewing, and the seventh and eighth in 
the second class. The fourth, in that case, should do in- 
dustrial work with the First Division. Chapter XVII dis- 
cusses the elementary work. The following outlines give 
the work in detail for the four years' work of the two divi- 
sions. Both classes can work at the same time, if there is 
bench room, 

ARTICLES SUITABLE FOR RURAL SCHOOLS . 

The student should study each cut of the article to be 
made very carefully before attempting to do the work. 
Read directions and consult the cut again before starting. 

1 — Key Label 

Material: Basswood as follows: 4 inches by 134 inches 
by 34 inch. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



309 



Tools Used: Chisel, saw, brace and bit, and ruler. 
Directions: Saw out the stock 4 inches long and V/i 
inches wide. Then lay out the key label following the 




Figure 98. Key label. 

dimensions given in the cut. Chisel the edges carefully 
down to the line. Bore the hole. 



Material: 



2 — Match Scratcher 
Basswood as follows: 3% inches by 2J^ 



inches by }/i inch. 




Figure 99. Match scratcher. 



Tools Used: Chisel, 
saw, dividers, and brace 
and bit. 

Directions: Saw out 
the stock 35^8 inches long 
and 2V2 inches wide. 
Lay out match scratcher 
r-p according to directions 
in the cut, using the 
dividers to make the 
arcs. Chisel to the 
proper shape and bore 
the hole. Cutout. Sand- 
paper till smooth. Fit 



310 



RURAL EDUCATION 



the sandpaper and fasten on with glue. This is a useful 
article and will make a nice little remembrance. 

3— Fishline Winder 

Material: Basswood as follows: 6 inches by 2 54 inches 
by 34 inch. 

Tools Used: Chisel, saw, knife and ruler. 

Directions: Saw out the stock 6 inches long and 
2J4 inches wide. Lay out the fishline winder, following 




Figure 100. Fishline winder 



directions given in the cut. Chisel the sides to shape. 
With a sloyd knife or jackknife whittle out the ends to the 
proper shape. Every boy will find a use for this article. 

4 — Plant Marker 

Material: Basswood as follows: one piece 43^ inches 
by 2J/2 inches by 34 inch, one piece 63^ inches, by 134 
inches by }/£ inch. 

Tools Used: Chisel, saw, dividers, knife and hammer. 

Directions: Saw out the stock one piece 43^ inches 
by 2J/2 inches and one piece 6J^ inches by 134 inches. Lay 
out the face of the plant marker; then lay out the stake. 
Using the knife, whittle out the face. Chisel out the stake. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



311 




Figure 101. Plant marker. 



Nail the two pieces together. The plant marker will be 
found very useful in the spring when the vegetable garden 
is being made. 

5 — Whisk Broom Holder 

Material: Basswood as follows: one piece 8 inches by 
5 inches by J4 inch; one piece 5 inches by 5 inches by 34 
inch; two pieces 5 inches by 134 inches by 34 inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, brace and bit and hammer. 

Directions: Saw out the stock according to directions. 
Lay out the back, front and side pieces. Plane the back, 
front and side pieces to the proper size. Then put the parts 
together. Bore the hole to hang the holder. This is a 
useful little article for the kitchen or bedroom. 



312 



RURAL EDUCATION 




Figure 102. Whisk broom holder. 

6— Salt Box 



5'- 



nr 



,-i 




5± 



Figure 103. Salt box. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



313 



Material: Basswood as follows: one piece 10 inches 
by 5 inches by 34 inch; one piece 5 inches by 5 inches by 34 
inch; one piece 5 inches by 4J^ inches by 34 inch; two pieces 
6 inches by 4 inches by 34 inch; one piece 4 inches by 5 
inches by 34 inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, hammer and brace and bit. 

Directions: Lay out the back, front, bottom and two 
sides. Plane these pieces to the proper size. Put the parts 
together, using hammer and small nails. Bore the hole. 
This is a very useful article for the kitchen. The salt will 
be handy and kept clean, if the cover of the box is closed. 

7— Match Box 

Material: Basswood as follows: one piece 33^ inches 
by 33^2 inches by 34 inch; one piece 33^ inches by 2 inches 



■^>^ 



CM 



Z{ 



I-. 



— levj 
CO 




Yfc 



Figure 104. Match box. 



314 



RURAL EDUCATION 



by 34 inch; one piece 3 inches by 1% inches by 34 inch; 
two pieces 8 inches by 3j4 inches by 34 inch. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, hammer, knife, dividers, 
brace and bit. 

Directions: Saw out the stock to the proper size, fol- 
lowing the cut and directions given above. Lay out the 
parts, plane and whittle to the proper size and shape. Nail 
the pieces together and bore the hole. 

8— Toothbrush Holder 

Material: Basswood as follows: one piece 7^ inches 
by 2J4 inches by 34 inch; one piece 2% inches by 1J^ inches 
by % inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, hammer, plane, brace and bit. 

Directions: Saw out the stock according to directions. 
Lay out the back and the holder. Plane the back and holder 
to the proper size. Lay out the chamfer, or bevel, on the 



a 



TTT^ 



^ 



2 1" 



1\ 

8 



h?i 



W-ii— 



HC\J 



>OlQ0 







-H 






1 


p 




p 


T 


1 

4 


<r 





Figure 105. Toothbrush holder. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



315 



back. Plane off the beveled edge to the line. Lay out 
the holes on the holder and bore them accurately with 
the brace and bit. Make the saw cuts. Study the draw- 
ing carefully. This is an article that should be in every 
home so that each member of the family can have a definite 
place for his toothbrush. Incidently, it may be that more 
brushes will be used, if the racks are made and taken home. 

9 — Bird House 

Material: Basswood as follows: two pieces 534 inches 
by 33^ inches by 34 inch; two pieces 4J^ inches by 4 inches 
by 34 inch; one piece 4j/g inches by 3^ inches by 34 inch; 
two pieces 5J^ inches by 33^ inches by 34 inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, hammer, and brace and bit. 

Directions: Lay out end pieces and cut them to the 
proper size with the saw. Lay out roof boards and plane 






1- 


L J 


j 














T 1 " 






4l" 






~6 
4 1 " 




r 


^a 


1 


1 1 



z i 



Figure 106. Bird house. 



316 



RURAL EDUCATION 



to size. Plane the post to size. Assemble the pieces and 
fasten together. Paint any color desired. Gray or green 
are probably best. Students should be encouraged to make 
bird houses and erect them in the home yards, as they will 
then become more interested in all common birds, seeing 
their beauty as well as usefulness. 

10 — Planing Exercise 

Material: Pine 9}i inches by 1% inches by 1% inches. 

Tools Used: Plane and saw. 

Directions: Plane and square a face. Test it with 
try-square. From this face square an edge. Next square 
one end with the squared face and edge. Cut to length 
and square end. Cut to width and square edge. Cut to 



MH 




Figure 107. Planing exercise. 

thickness and square face. While the plane is necessary 
in making the objects listed above, it is not necessary to 
make up a planing exercise until more complicated projects are 
executed. If students do not get this exercise well the 
first time, it should be repeated, as they will need to be able 
to plane to the line in making the exercises that follow. 

11 — Sawing Exercise 

Material: Pine 9J^ inches by l'j4 inches by 1% inches. 
Tools Used: Plane and saw. 

Directions: Plane and square up the stock to 9 inches 
and 1J^ inches square. Study the drawing and make saw 



MANUAL TRAINING 



317 



X ,N >\ 


^\ 










h'H 


h'f- 


l*~— f"4"H 


i 

"2" 


-f- 


- r- 


h'i"- 














. • — 

"—leg 

* 



Figure 108. Sawing exercise. 

cuts as designated in the drawing, using the backsaw. This 
exercise is also very necessary in order to do accurately 
the work that follows. 

12— Bread Board 

Material: Pine 12 inches by 6 inches by % inch. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, dividers, wood file and sand- 
paper. 

Directions: Saw out the stock 12 inches by 6 inches 
by % inch. Square one face. Square one edge with the 




Figure 109. Bread board. 

squared face. Square one end with the squared face and 
edge. Cut to proper length and square the end. Cut to 
proper width and square the edge. Cut to proper thickness 



318 



RURAL EDUCATION 



and square the face. Lay out curved ends with the dividers 
and cut with chisel. Lay out rounded bevel and work 
round with the plane. Smooth up the bevel with the wood 
file. Sandpaper the entire board until it is perfectly smooth. 

13— Sleeve Board 

Material: Pine as follows: Two pieces 22 inches by 
4% inches by % inch; two pieces 8J4 inches by 4 inches 
by % inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, chisel, wood file, sandpaper, 
and brace and bit. 

Directions: Saw out the stock according to directions. 
Plane the bottom to the proper size and round the four 
corners. Lay out the top board and plane to the proper 




Figure 110. Sleeve board. 

size and shape. Make dowel holes and put in the dowels. 
Put in bolts. Use wood file and sandpaper on all rough 
edges. Sandpaper the top until perfectly smooth. This 
is a very useful article in the home and not difficult to make, 
if the drawing and the directions are followed carefully. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



319 



14— Knife Box 

Material: Pine as follows: one piece 12^ inches by 
6 J/2 inches by % inch; two pieces 8 inches by 5 inches by 
54 inch; two pieces 12 inches by 3 inches by % inch. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, hammer, dividers, brace and 
bit and sandpaper. 

Directions: After studying the drawing, saw out the 
stock. Plane the bottom piece to the proper size. Lay 




Figure 111. Knife box. 

out the rounded bevel and plane. Lay out end pieces and 
cut them to shape. Cut the holes for handles in the end 
pieces, using brace and bit. Cut side pieces to proper size. 
Assemble and nail pieces together. Sandpaper the entire 
box until smooth. This is another very useful article. 
While it is called a knife box, knives, forks and spoons can 
be kept in it f 



120 



RURAL EDUCATION 



15 — Floor Broom Holder 

Material: Pine as follows: one piece 8 inches by 3 inches 
by % inch; one piece 53^ inches by 2 3/2 inches by % inch. 

Tools Used : Plane, saw, brace and bit, chisel, sandpaper 
and screw driver. 

Directions: Square up the bottom piece and the holder 
to size, following the drawing and the directions. Lay 
out the bevel on the bottom piece and plane the bevel. Lay 




Figure 112. Floor broom holder. 

out the holder and cut to the proper shape. Bore the hole 
for the holder. Make saw cuts. Assemble and fasten 
the pieces together with screws, as shown in the drawing. 
Sandpaper carefully until smooth. This useful little article 
will be welcomed by any housekeeper. Unless there is 
a proper place for the broom, it is often short-lived and 
usually in the way. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



321 



16— Nail Box or Tray 

Material: Pine as follows: two pieces 14^g inches by 
2 J/8 inches by % inch; three pieces 8M inches by 2^ inches 
by % inch; one piece 8J4 inches by 33/8 inches by % inch. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, hammer, chisel, brace and 
bit and sandpaper. 

Directions: After studying the drawing, plane the 
sides and ends to the proper sizes. Plane the partitions to 
size. Cut out the handle and make it smooth. Assemble 



'^8 



-loo 



* NO 1 00 



r-oloo 



-loo 



10 



4 



*— 3 



ro-ioo 



















^^ 






I - 


r\J 




t 


^s*^ 


r 


= , ! 


> 


1 


j-2"- 

i 


\\'\ 


^ 


Mrt- 


> 


1 1 l 
>i I i 1 


J> 


r-cj ■■■ ' 




°A- 




* C *1 I I 


?J 




>AJQO 



Figure 113. Nail box or tray. 

and nail pieces together. Sandpaper until smooth. Every 
boy should know the different sizes of nails and what they 
are used for. Each division of the tray may be used for 
one size of nails. "A place for everything and everything 
in its place" can be followed with a nail box. 



21— 



322 



RURAL EDUCATION 



17— Necktie Rack 

Material: Oak as follows: three pieces 16 inches by 
Y% inches by 3^ inch; two pieces 5 inches by 1% inches by 
3^2 inch. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, chisel, sandpaper and hammer. 

Directions: Plane the front and back pieces to the 
proper size, following the drawing. Lay out the ends and 



\Q 



s 



a 



y 



T 



L 






-'* 



A 



* 



K&> 



Vl 



R4 



k|» 



VT 



E 



>fa 



Figure 114. Necktie rack. 

cut to proper shape. Nail the pieces together, and sandpaper 
carefully. Stain, using any desired color. The stain may 
be put on by using a cloth and rubbing it into the wood. 
This handy article would make a useful Christmas present. 

18— Towel Roller 

Material: Pine as follows: one piece 2154 inches by 
4y$ inches by % inch; two pieces 3 inches by 2 inches by 
Y± inch; one piece 20 inches by V/2 inches by V/2 inches. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



323 



Tools Used: Plane, saw, chisel, screw driver, wood 
file and brace and bit. 

Directions: ' Saw out the stock. Plane and square up 
the back, the ends and the roller. Lay out the bevel on the 
back and plane it. Lay out the ends and cut to shape. 
Bore the holes in the ends for the roller. Plane the roller 
until it is round. Cut the tenons on the ends of the roll- 



2/jf- 



3"_ 

LiT 






7T~ 



— (CM 


(<;<] 


\ .1 








i 






rjisr 




— 3 




♦ 



er so they will fit the holes in the ends. Smooth the roller 
with the wood file. Fasten the end pieces to the back with 
screws, as shown in the drawing. Sandpaper all the pieces 
until they are smooth. Rub on the stain with a cloth. 
Put the roller in place. While the family towel is not 
sanitary, it is better to have it on a roller than merely hung 
up on a nail. A roll of paper toweling could be fastened 
on the roller instead of the common towel. 

19— Milk Stool 
Material: Pine as follows: two pieces 10 inches by 
9 inches by % inch; one piece 16 inches by 5% inches by 
% inch; one piece 11 inches by 53^ inches by % inch. 



324 



RURAL EDUCATION 



-i'i 



u 



M- 



IS- 



-IfM 

t_ 



-c- 



H'i 

Figure 116. Milk stool. 



"F5l<s*- 



ToolsUsed: Saw, plane 
^p and screw driver. 

Directions: Saw out 

- the stock. Square up the 

— top, the side pieces and the 
bottom. Lay out the bevel 
on the top and plane it to 
the line. Lay out the ends 
and cut to the proper shape. 
Bring pieces together and 
fasten with screws. Sand- 
paper until smooth. As 
many of these stools can 
be used in any dairy barn 
as there are persons milk- 
ing. Boxes, up-turned pails, 
and other temporary things 



are unhandy, and a stool can be made with very little 
labor and expense. 



20— Camp Stool 

Material: Oak as follows: four pieces 21 inches by lj^ 
inches by % inch; four pieces 163^ inches by 1 inch by 1 
inch. 

Tools Used: Plane, saw, wood file, sandpaper and 
brace and bit. 

Directions: Square up all pieces as given in the draw- 
ing. Bore holes in the side pieces. Round up the cross 
pieces, using the plane. Bring the parts together and 
fasten them securely. After sandpapering the stool it 
should be shellacked, using a brush or a cloth. A piece of 
canvas or common grain sack may be cut to the desired 
size and sewed around the cross pieces. A few camp stools 



MANUAL TRAINING 



325 



on the porch or on the lawn will give enough extra comfort 
to pay for the work of making them. Many boys plan an 
outing in the summer. These stools are collapsible and 
may be packed away with other camp utensils, or they may 
be made to come apart, the "take down" kind, and carried 
in the knapsack. Or carry the canvas and make the stool. 






_7 
8 








h 13- - 



Figure 117. Camp stool. 



21— Another Toothbrush Holder 

Material: Oak as follows: one piece 8 inches by 4^ 
inches by Y2 inch; one piece 8 inches by lj^ inches by 1J^ 
inches. 

Tools Used: Saw, plane, dividers, bevel, sandpaper 
and brace and bit. 

Directions: Lay out the back and cut to the proper 
shape. Cut the holder to shape, using the drawing as the 
guide. Fasten the pieces together securely. Sandpaper 
until smooth and rub on a stain. As will be noticed, this 
is a more difficult model than Number 8, and more durable. 



226 



RURAL EDUCATION 




o 



Mloo 



U U, U U 



-kv) 



'<£$ 



Figure 118. Another toothbrush holder. 

22— Tub Stand 




Figure 119. Tub stand. 



Material: Oak as 

follows: six pieces 22 
inches by 2}^ inches 
by % inch; one piece 
173^ inches by 4 
inches by % inch; ten 
pieces 16J^ inches by 
•1 inch by 1 inch; one 
piece 16 inches by 5 
inches by % inch; 
two pieces 36 inches 
by 2J/2 inches by % 
inch. 

Tools Used: Saw, 
plane and brace and 
bit. 



MANUAL TRAINING 327 

Directions: Study the drawing carefully. Square up 
all the pieces and cut them to the proper size. Work each 
piece to shape. Plane the cross pieces until they are round. 
Make them smooth with the wood file and sandpaper. 
Fasten the pieces together firmly. Finish with a coat or 
two of shellac. This is one of the most useful things that 
could be made for the kitchen. The rack can be folded up 
and put away when not in use. There is room for two 
tubs, and the wringer is fastened to the top of the stand. 
While it is more difficult to make than the other exercises 
given, it is not at all impossible for some older boy. It 
would also make a good home project. 

HOME PROJECTS IN MANUAL TRAINING 

In many country schools there are boys in the middle 
'teens or older, who would be glad to do some manual 
training at home, if they had the opportunity. Older 
brothers or father may be able to assist. The working 
drawings and directions for a few very useful farm projects 
are here given. They should suggest others. These have 
all been done by farm boys attending our associated schools, 
and can be done by any bright, energetic young man. 

A workshop should be provided on every farm. Even if 
it must be in a corner of some other building, have a shop. 
It should contain a bench sufficiently large for a man's con- 
venience. A list of tools similar to those given above for 
the rural schools will be needed. A grindstone, run by 
power, of course, on a modern' farm, and such materials as 
will be needed for ordinary repairs on the place should be 
systematically arranged. And these are not all. A port- 
able forge, with the necessary tools for operating it, will 
pay for itself several times in one year on some farms. It 
is a waste of time and money to take an implement to town 



32$ RURAL EDUCATION 

that might be repaired in the home shop. Every farm 
boy should learn how to make a weld that will hold, and 
how to make the simple repairs needed. Rainy days and 
odd times without suitable work have more to do with 
making a boy dissatisfied with the farm than lack of picnics 
and other good times. One of the most interesting places 
to a boy is the blacksmith shop. A soldering outfit should 
also be there, as it will be needed in some of the repairs. 

Cement work is now very practicable on the farm. 
This can be learned by any of the older boys. Sidewalks, 
barn floors, drinking troughs, hitching posts, and even 
building blocks can all be made very cheaply. In some 
sections cement posts are taking the place of wooden ones. 
If soft wood, as poplar, grows on the farm, posts from this 
may be made and treated so that they will last almost as 
long as a cedar post. This process is cheaper than cement, 
as it can be done for a few cents a post. See the outline for 
the booklet on "Wood Preservatives and Substitutes," 
Chapter XXI. 

The three projects suggested for home work can easily 
be done, as all of them are successfully being done in some 
schools, by "short course" students from the farms. 

Chicken Coop 

Material: Pine as follows: 

4 pieces 24 feet long by 12 inches wide by J^ inch, 
2 pieces 34 inches long by 1~Y inches wide by Y inch. 
2 pieces 21 inches long by l 1 ^ inches wide by Yi inch. 
2 pieces 17 inches long by l 1 ^ inches wide by Yi inch. 
2 pieces 10 inches long by XY2 inches wide by Y2 inch. 
Tools Used: Plane, saw, hammer, square, brace and bit. 
Directions: See drawing. Join the two sides together. 
Nail sides in V shape. Put on slats, front and back. Paint. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



329 





Figure 120. Chicken coop. 

Wagon Box 
Materials: 

2 pieces 10 feet 6 inches by 12 inches by J4 inch — pine. 
2 pieces 3 feet by 12 inches by % inch — pine. 
2 pieces 3 feet 7 inches by 4 inches by 2 inches — oak. 
2 pieces 3 feet 3 inches by 4 inches by 2 inches — oak. 



4 pieces 10 feet 6 inches by 12 inches by % inch- 
Iron work: Braces and top irons. 



pine. 



* 



¥ 



LJ 



\h S 



w< 



ti Hfifr 



d 



10 2 



-> + 



^ 



Figure 121. Wagon box. 



330 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Tools Used: Plane, saw, brace and bit, screw driver, 
hammer and square. 

Directions: See drawing. Make bottom braces first. 
Then cut out sides; make bottom; make end gates; as- 
semble. Put on iron work. Paint. 

Stock Rack 

Materials : 2 pieces 10 feet by 8 inches by 2 inches— pine. 
8 pieces 10 feet by 4 inches by 1 inch — pine. 
10 pieces 4 feet 3 inches by 4 inches by 2 inch — pine. 
8 pieces 3 feet by 4 inches by 1 inch — pine. 




ff r 


00 

— t— 


If 


1 




1 


1 


V 

1 


J 


L 


1 


1 




- — 


o'2"- 





Figure 122. Stock rack. 



Tools Used: Plane, saw, square, brace and bit, screw 
driver, wrench. 

Directions: See drawing. Plane and cut the boards 
to size. Make end gates; assemble. Paint. 



CHAPTER XXI 




AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL 
BOOKLETS 

It is entirely practicable to teach the elements of agri- 
culture in the rural schools. A few suitable textbooks have 
been published for this work, but it is a good plan to sup T 
plement the work of the textbook by excursions, talks, and 

_ booklets in con- 
nection with the 
language work. 
Encourage the 
students to have 
home gardens 
and, if possible, 
give prizes for 
the exhibits in 
the fall. The 
school can well 
afford to furnish 
vegetable and flower seeds to stimulate interest. Many 
counties and states now have contests in corn and other 
products, and rural school students especially should be en- 
couraged to enter these contests. 

Agricultural talks by the teacher to the entire school 
should be given frequently. Students should be made 
familiar with all the common grains, grasses, seeds, flowers, 
trees, vegetables, weeds, insects, and farm animals. Make 
collections of grains and grasses in the fall and have them 
for study during the winter. Select seed corn during 
"Seed Corn Week." Make window boxes and plant cab- 
bage and tomato seeds early in the spring. Make germi- 

331 



Figure 123. Two prize winners in the state contest and 
samples of their corn. Their average yield was over 
one hundred and ten bushels per acre. The ear on 
the scale weighs just a pound. 



332 RURAL EDUCATION 

nation boxes and "rag dolls" for testing seed corn and 
other seed. Learn the use of the common garden tools and 
farm implements. Make a social survey of the school 
district and locate farms, silos, creamery, dairy herds, etc. 
Bring a sample of the top and subsoil from each farm, or 
as many farms as convenient. Put these samples in small 
glass bottles for study. Get samples of clay, sand, loam, 
humus and fertilizers. Study the different soils derived 
from a mixture of these. Study the relation of moisture to 
crops. Show by simple experiments capillarity, solubility 
and osmosis, and explain how plants get their food by these 
means. Study the breeds of horses, cattle, hogs and sheep 
found in the community. Make a school collection of 
injurious and beneficial insects and be able to discuss each 
and tell methods of getting rid of the injurious kinds. 
Learn the bad weeds of the district. Make a collection of 
them and tell how to eradicate them. Get two or three 
dozen "pill bottles" at the drug store. Collect grain and 
weed seeds in the fall, dry them, put them into the bottles, 
and label neatly. Study these and the pressed collection 
during the winter. Make a special study of potatoes dur- 
ing the fall, when they are being dug. Bring as many 
varieties as you can get for comparison and study. Bake 
a few of each, and boil some for the hot lunches and test 
their eating qualities. 

Permanent school exhibits in agricultural products 
should be made. The above list of topics will suggest 
others. The work discussed and field work done may be 
written up in the booklets. A few topics should be chosen 
for the year and these outlines carefully worked out. 

Agricultural booklets are the common means of study- 
ing agriculture in the rural schools. These are written as 
language work, on good paper with pen and ink, and dis- 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 333 

cuss an outline of some phase of agriculture. Clippings 
from magazines, catalogs, or original drawings in ink or 
water color, are used to illustrate the booklets. Cover 
paper, or common drawing paper tinted may be used as 
covers for the booklets. A great number of suitable topics 
might be suggested for this work, but each school should 
select a few that are best suited to its own community. 

Suggestive topics for agricultural booklet work are as 
follows: Corn, Small Grains, Noxious Weeds, the Vege- 
table Garden, Potatoes, the Legumes, Alfalfa and Its Uses, 
the Fiber Crops of the United States, Grass and Forage 
Crops, Sugar Beets, Soils and Fertilizers, Seed Testing for 
Purity and Germination, Injurious and Beneficial Insects, 
Rotation of Crops, Drainage, The Need of Modern Methods 
in Farming, Dry Farming and Irrigation. 

The outlines that follow are to be worked out by the 
students in booklet form. Reference material will be found 
in the school library, at home, and, above all, in the fields. 
Work them out as fully as you can and illustrate the 
booklets with pictures and original drawings. Only the 
best writing and language the student is capable of using 
should be accepted in this work, as it is English work as 
well as agriculture. 

AGRICULTURAL OUTLINES 
CORN 

Early History— Pop corn — Where grown, uses. 

In the United States — Indian corn. Sweet corn — Where grown, canning. 

In your state — Development of varie- Flint — Where grown — varieties, 

ties. Dent — Where grown — varieties. 

In your locality — Earliest growers. Cultivation — 

Importance as a Crop — Soil — 

Where grown — Countries and states. Fertility — Rotation of crops. 

Yields per acre — National, state, Drainage — Necessary to success, 

local. Physical conditions. 

Comparison with other crops. Preparation of Seed Bed — 

Kinds of Corn — Plowing — Fall plowing best. . 

Pod corn — now only a curiosity. Discing — In the spring. 



334 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Harrowing — Before and after plant- 



ing. 



top 



Manuring — Before plowing, 
dressing. 
Planting — 

By hand — Hand planter, hoe. 
Check row — Horse planter, advan- 
tage. 
Drill — How drilled, advantages. 
Time to plant locally. 
Summer Tillage — 
Need of— 

Eradication of weeds. 
Conservation of moisture. 
Depth — Shallow vs. deep. 
Frequency — After every rain. 
Diseases and Pests- 
Smut — Cause, eradication, dangers. 
Animals — Gophers, crows, blackbirds. 
Insects — Cutworm, wireworm, corn 
root louse, white grub, chinch bug 
army worm, stalk borer, grass- 
hopper. 
Method of dealing with pests. 



Quantity — Amount needed for ten 

acres. 
Commercial purposes — Prevailing 
prices. 
Storing- 
Temporary drying — Where, time. 
Permanent storing — Free from mois- 
ture. 

Patent devices. 
Homemade devices. 
Corn Judging — 
Without score card. 
With score card. 
Seed Testing- 
Testers — Patent, homemade. 
Individual ear — Advantages. 
Shelled corn — Disadvantages. 
Seed Grading— 

How done — Machinery. 
Why done — Butts and tips. 
Corn Breeding — 

Improvement of quality — Better corn. 
Improvement of quantity — More 
corn. 




Figure 124. Gathering seed corn at the school farm and stringing for drying. 

maturity — Earlier 



Harvesting- 
Silage — When cut, how stored. 
Bundle corn — When cut, machinery 
Husking — When, how, storing. 

Seed Selection— 

From seed plot — Advantages. 
From field — Best stalks and ears. 
From crib — Disadvantages. 
Time — "Seed Corn Week." 



of 



Improvement 

corn. 
Corn crossing — New varieties. 
Uses of Corn — 
Stock Food — 

Grain — Ground or fed whole. 
Bundle corn — Roughage and grain. 
Silage — Protein and fattening qual- 
ities. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 



335 



n 

£ 


IjJ 


ill': 


^SHfe-f:f 




H | 






: !S 


HIE 


~3%m 



Courtesy of The Farmer 

Figure 125. A tray of typical seed corn. A few kernels have been taken from 
each ear for the germination test. 



Hogging off — Advantages. 
Commercial preparations — Gluten, 
meal, etc. 
Human food — 

Cornmeal — How used. 
Corn starch — Uses. 



Hominy — How made, uses. 

Corn syrup — How made, uses. 
Corn sugar — How made, uses. 
Special breakfast foods — Corn 
flakes, etc. 
Other Uses — Paper, alcohol, armor 
wadding, etc. 



REFERENCES 

Corn by Bowman & Crossley, Field Crops by Wilson & Warburton, Corn 
Crops by Montgomery, and Forage and Fiber Crops of America by Hunt are ex- 
cellent works of reference. 

ROTATION OF CROPS 



Need of Rotation — 

Exhaustion of soils — 

In New England — Character of 

soil. 
In Virginia — Tobacco raising. 
In the West — Grain growing. 
To decompose fertilizers — 
How rotation helps. 
Decomposition can take place only 

with heat, air and moisture. 

These conditions should exist 

while the plant is growing. 

Otherwise plant food is lost by 

washing 
To increase yields — 

Crops actually larger under crop 

rotation! 
To maintain soil fertility — 

Some European soils, cropped for 

more than a thousand years 

under rotation, better than virgin 

soil. 



Theories of Rotation — 

Toxic — Poisons produced by succes- 
sive crops. 

Chemical — Plant food unlocked, bac- 
teria. 

Economic — Maintains vegetable mat- 
ter. 
Classes of Rotation — 

Grain crops — Kinds, advantages — 
Food and sale crops. 
Little vegetable matter left in soil. 

Grass crops — Kinds, advantages. 
Live stock — Pasturage. 
Vegetable matter — Large roots, 
bacteria. 

Cultivated crops — Kinds, advantages. 
Economy in time — Summer work. 
Favorable conditions for decom- 
position. 
Effect on soils — How beneficial. 



336 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Principles of Rotation- 
Short time — 

For building up worn out soils. 
Three-year rotation — Grain, grass 
cultivated. 
Long time — 

For permanent use. 
Five to ten years — Advantages. 
Fertilizers used — 



Suggestive Rotations- 
Dressing of manure once during 

rotation. 
Commercial fertilizers as needed.. 
Relation to fields- 
Same number of fields as years of 

rotation. 
Fields uniform size as nearly as 

possible. 
Enables constant supply of live 

stock. 

Three Year Plan— 



Year 


Field A 


Field B 


Field C 


1915 
1916 
1917 


Grain 

Clover 

Corn 


Clover 

Corn 

Grain 


Corn 
Grain 
Clover 


Four Year Plan — 



Year 



1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 



Field A 



Grain 
Meadow 
Pasture 
Corn 



Field B 



Meadow 
Pasture 
Corn 
Grain 



Field C 



Pasture 
Corn 
Grain 
Meadow 



Field D 



Corn 
Grain 
Meadow 
Pasture 



Five Year Plan- 



Year 


Field A 


Field B 


Field C 


Field D 


Field E 


1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 


Grain 

Grain 

Meadow 

Pasture 

Corn 


Grain 

Meadow 

Pasture 

Corn 

Grain 


Meadow 

Pasture 

Corn 

Grain 

Grain 


Pasture 

Corn 

Grain 

Grain 

Meadow 


Corn 

Grain 

Grain 

Meadow 

Pasture 



Note: Find out what rotations are used in the community and encourage 
wider use of them. 

REFERENCES 

A new work entitled, Field Management and Crop Rotation by E. C. Parker 
is a most thorough treatment of this subject and an invaluable book for reference. 



COMMON WEEDS 



Definition of a Weed — Any plant out 

of place. 
Classification— ■ 
Annual weeds — 

Characteristics — Ripen seeds one 
year only. 



Eradication — Destroy before seed 

forms. 
Biennial weeds — 

Characteristics — Ripen seeds the 

second year. 
Eradication — Prevent seeding. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 



337 



Perennial weeds — 

Characteristics — Ripen seeds every 

year. 
Eradication — Destroy seed and 
root stem. 
Economic Conditions- 
Injurious effects — 

Rob crops of moisture. 
Take nourishment from crops. 
Sometimes poisonous to live stock. 
Money loss — Millions of dollars 
annually. 
Beneficial effects — 

Fertilizers — Plowed under as "green 

manure." 
Shade ground — Prevents baking of 

soil. 
Rotation — Sometimes compel ro- 
tations of crop. 
A Dozen "Worst Weeds" 
Russian thistle — 

Annual — Small seeds, tumble weed. 
Where found — Flat prairie country. 
How destroyed — Cultivation, crop 
rotation. 
Pigeon grass — 

Other names — Foxtail, barn grass. 
Annual — Small seeds, large head. 
Where found — Gardens, grain fields. 
How destroyed — Cultivation 
Ragweed — 

Annual — Three kinds, small seeds. 
Especially obnoxious — Hay fever. 
Where found — Roadsides, waste 

places. 
How destroyed — Mow roads and 
corners. 
Cocklebur — 

Annual — Seeds in clusters. 
Where found — Grain fields. 
How destroyed — Cultivation, pas- 
turing. 
Mustard — 

Annual — Tall plant, yellow flower. 



Where found — Grain fields. 

How destroyed — Crop rotation. 
Wild cat — 

Annual — Ripens early and shells 
out. 

Where found — Grain fields. 

How destroyed — Crop rotation. 
Burdock — 

Biennial — Bushy plant, seed in 
burs. 

Where found — Roadside, pastures. 

How destroyed — Digging up, plow- 
ing. 
Bull thistle — 

Biennial — Bushy plant, red flower. 

Where found — Pastures, waste 
places. 

How destroyed — Crop rotation. 
Dandelion — 

Perennial — Small plant, yellow 
flower. 

Where found — Everywhere, lawns 
in particular. 

How destroyed — Dig out, sheep 
pasture. 
Canada thistle — 

Perennial — One of our worst weeds. 

Where found — Grain fields, road- 
sides. 

How destroyed — Cultivation, crop 
rotation. 
Plantain — 

Perennial — Small plant, seeds in 
spikes. 

Where found — Lawns, pastures. 

How destroyed — Dig up, sheep pas- 
ture. 
Quack grass — 

Perennial — Perhaps our worst 
weed. 
Where found — Grain fields, pastures, 
roads. 

How destroyed — Crop rotations, 
smotnering summer fallow. 



REFERENCES 

Much help may be obtained from Weeds and 



Shaw, Quack Grass Eradication by Crane, 
Pammel, and Manual of Weeds by Georgia. 



How to Eradicate Them by 
Weeds ot the Farm and Garden by 



INSECTS THAT I KNOW 



General Description — 

Parts — Head, thorax, abdomen. 
Legs — All have three pairs. 
Breathing spiracles — Tubes on abdo- 
men. 

22 — 



Stages of Growth. (Metamorpho- 
ses) — 

First stage — Egg. 
Second stage — Larva. 
Tnird stage — Pupa, or cocoon. 



338 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Fourth stage — Imago, or adult. 
Incomplete metamorphoses — Egg, 
nymph, adult. 
Groups of Insects- 
Biting — 

Mouth parts fitted for biting. 
Example — Grasshopper. 
How destroyed — Can be poisoned. 
Sprays — Paris Green, lead acetate. 

Paris green 1 pound. 

Quicklime 1 pound. 

Water 200 gallons. 

Sucking — 

Mouth parts fitted for sucking 

juices. 
Example — Plant louse. 
How destroyed — Suffocation, can- 
not poison. 
Sprays — Soap emulsion, tobacco, 
tea. 

Soap H pound. 

Soft Water 1 gallon. 

Kerosene 2 gallons. 

Preying insects — 

Those that feed upon other insects. 
Example Ladybugs. 
How protect — Beneficial, not in- 
jurious. 
Economic Conditions — 

Money losses — Millions of dollars 

annually. 
Mechanical devices for destroying. 
Unsanitary — Disease carriers. 
Annoying pests — Mosquitos, cock- 
roaches, etc. 
Straight-winged Insects — O rthop- 
tera — 
Grasshopper — 

Changes — Incomplete, biting in- 
sect. 
Economy — Injurious, grain and 
grass. 
Cockroach — 

Changes — Incomplete, biting in- 
sect. 
Economy — Injurious, infest houses. 
Cricket — 

Changes — Incomplete, biting in- 
sect. 
Economy — Injurious, fields, homes. 
Sheath-winged Insects — Coleoptera 
(Beetles)— 
Potato beetle — 

Changes — Complete, biting insect. 
Economy — Injurious, damage enor- 
mous. 



Buffalo beetle — 

Changes — Complete, biting insect. 
Economy — Injurious, carpets, clo- 
thing. 
Ladybug (Not a bug at all) — 

Economy — Beneficial, destroys in- 
sects. 
Boll weevil — 

Economy — Injurious, eats cotton 
boll. 
Plum curculio— 

Changes — Complete, biting insect. 
Economy — Injurious, plums, cher- 
ries, apples. 
Half-winged Insects — Hemiptera— 
(Bugs) 
Plant lice — 

Changes — Irregular, sucking in- 
sects. 
Economy- — Injurious, plant juices. 
Scale bugs (San Jose' and others) — 
Changes — Complete, sucking in- 
sects. 
Economy — Injurious, orchards, 
trees. 
Squash bug — 

Changes — Complete, sucking in- 
sect. 
Economy — Injurious, attacks all 
vines. 
Chinch bug — 

Changes — Complete, sucking in- 
sect. 
Economy — Injurious, grains, grass- 
es, corn. 
Bedbug — 

Economy — Injurious, houses, 

hotels. 
Destroy with corrosive sublimate, 
in alcohol and turpentine. 
Two-winged Insects — Diptera— 
Typhoid fly — Common house fly. 
Changes — Complete, biting insect. 
Economy — Disease carriers, scav- 
engers. 
Hessian fly — 

Changes — Complete, "flax seed" 

stage. 
Economy — I n j u r i o u s — W heat 
fields. 
Fleas and mosquitos — 

Changes — Complete, biting insects. 
Economy — Great human pests. 
Botfly- 
Changes — Complete, parasite. 
Economy — Horse and cattle pest. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 



339 



Scaly-winged Insects — L epldop- 
tera — 

Distinguished between moths and 

butterflies. 
Codling moth — 

Changes — Complete, biting insects. 

Economy — Injurious, apples. 
Cotton moth (Army Worm) — 

Changes — Complete, biting insect. 

Economy — Great damage to cotton 
and oats. 
Cabbage butterfly — 

Changes — Complete, biting insect. 

Economy — Destroys cabbages. 



How destroy — Cover cabbage with 
flour. 

Membrane-winged Insects. — Hy- 
menoptera — 

Bees — 

Varieties — Life history. 

Changes — Complete, biting insects, 

Economy — Beneficial, honey, wax, 

etc. 
Ichneumon flies. — 

Changes — Complete, parasite. 
Economy — Beneficial, destroy 

great numbers of insects annually 



REFERENCES 

References for agricultural booklets may be obtained from the Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, and from your state agricultural college. Get 
the list of publications from these institutions and order bulletins on the special 
topics desired. Most of these bulletins are free. More complete books for text 
or reference purposes should be obtained of the publishers. 

Insects Injurious to Staples Crops by Sanderson, Insects Injurious to Vege- 
tables by Chittenden, Manual of Fruit Insects by Slingerland & Crosby, Injurious 
Insects — How to Recognize and Control Them by O'Kane, Our Insect Friends 
and Enemies by Smith, and Spraying Crops — Why, When and How to Weed. 



CHAPTER XXII 
HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 

" Horticulture" comes from two Latin words meaning 
the cultivation of a garden. We can, therefore, properly 
place vegetable gardening, fruit raising, and landscape gar- 
dening under the head of horticulture. There are many 
interesting topics in this group that can be made subjects 
for booklet work. The following list will suggest others: 

Strawberries, Bush Fruits, Apples, Fruit Bearing Trees, 
Citrus Fruits, the Vineyard, the Stone Fruits, the Orchard, 
Landscape Gardening, the Vegetable Garden, Potatoes, and 
Market Gardening. 



STRAWBERRIES 



Where Grown— 

Almost every country in the world. 
More widely grown than any other 
fruit. 
Origin- 
South America — Chile, most varieties. 
Wild strawberry — A few varieties. 
Alpine strawberry — Native of Eu- 
rope. 

Everbearing variety — Not import- 
ant. 
Location and Soil- 
Northern slope — Retarded in spring, 

no frost. 
Sandy loam — Rich, well drained. 
Warm soil — Retain moisture. 

Sod — Likely to contain cutworms, 
etc. 
Cultivated soil — Corn or potato land 

good. 
Preparation of Soil — 

Fertilizer — Heavy manuring, or 

commercial. 
Plowing — Shallow, fall. 
Disking — Thoroughly worked, 

spring. 
Seed bed — Loose on top, compact 
below. 



Propagation— 

By seed — 

Used in obtaining new varieties. 
By division of old plants — 

Used to propagate individual 
plants. 
By runners — 

The common way. 

How done. 
Plants and Planting- 
One year old plants — White, fibrous 

roots — 

Used for spring planting. 
Spring plants — White roots — 

Used for fall planting. 
Old plants — Dark roots — 

Not good for planting. 
Time for planting — 

Spring— For northern climates. 

Fall — For southern climates. 
Heeling-in — 

When dry, or when soil is not ready. 

Open bunches — Place in furrow, 
pack. 
Methods of planting — 

Hill method — For small patches, 
hoe. 

Matted rows — For large patches, 
cultivate. 



340 



HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 



341 



Set rows four feet apart, two feet 
apart in the row. Use corn 
marker for large patch. 
Planting — 

Two persons — Alan with spade, 

boy plants. 
Trowel — For small garden patches. 
Staminate and pistillate varieties, 
hardy. 
Care During Summer — 

Cultivation — Horse, between rows — 
Shallow — Free from weed j, mois- 
ture. 
Thin plants if necessary, cut run- 
ners. 
Train runners with the rows. 
Pick off all blossoms. 
Winter Protection — 

Materials — Straw, hay, etc. 
Time — Cover after ground is frozen. 
Depth — Cover three or more inches. 
Remove — After danger of frost in 

spring. 
Place straw between rows, conserve 
moisture. 



Renewing Beds- 
After one crop — Most growers plow 

up. 
Second year crop — If necessary — 

Mow off and burn. 

Plow furrow each side, leave one 
foot wide. 

Manure, cultivate. 

New plants, grown by fall. 
Picking and Marketing — 

For home use — Pick ripe, wash. 
For market — Rather green, boxes — 

Sort berries for market. 
Prices — Local, shipping. 
Strawberry Diseases and Insects — 
Rust on leaves — 

Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 

Rake up leaves and burn. 
White grub and cutworm — 

Do not plant on sod. 

Rake and burn after picking. 
Leaf roller — 

Spray with arsenate of lead. 



REFERENCES 

Popular Fruit Growing by Green, The A B C of Strawberry Culture by Terry, 
and Strawberry Culturist by Fuller. 

THE ORCHARD 

Every home should have an orchard large enough to at 
least furnish the family with all the fruit needed. There 
are enough hardy varieties of orchard fruits so that even 
in the northern climates there should be no lack of fruit. 
A small outlay and a little care will bring the desired re- 
sults. 



Location of the Orchard- 
Northern exposure — Usually best — 
Prevents freezing in spring. 
Prevents injuring from hot winds 
in summer. 
Near body of water — 
More even temperature. 
Drainage- 
Air drainage — 

High spots — Cold air in valleys. 
Rolling lands. 



Soil drainage — 

Natural — High and rolling lands. 
Tile — Between rows if necessary. 
Home Orchard — 

Plant where most convenient. 

Not always ideal location. 
The Soil— 

Hardpan subsoil — To be avoided. 

Gravel and sand — Not good. 

Heavy clay loam — Too slow. 

Light clay loam — Best. 

Hardwood soil — Usually good. 



342 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Preparation — 

Cultivated land best. 

Fertilizers — Rotted manure, green 

manure. 
Plowing — Fall, very deep. 
Disking and harrowing — Spring. 
Orchard Stock — 

From reliable nurseries. 

Get stock early. 

Heeling in — Cover roots in trenches. 

Size of trees — One to three years old. 

Grafted stock — Root, scion. 

Head the tree low. 



Know varieties best suited to local- 
ity. 
Varieties for Norwest— 

Apples — Duchess, Hibernal, Patten's 
Greening, Okabena, Wealthy, Ma- 
linda, Anisim, Iowa Beauty, Mil- 
waukee, Jewel s Winter. 

Crabs and hybirds — Whitney, Flor- 
ence, Strawberry, Minnesota, Tran- 
scendent. 

Plums and hydribs — DeSoto, Forest 
Garden, Wolf, Wyatt,. Stoddard, 
Terry. 




Figure 126. A well kept young apple orchard. 



Courtesy oi The Farmer. 



Planting- 
Distance between trees — Twenty- 
five to thirty feet. 
Arrangement — Some definite sys- 
tem — 
Triangular system — More trees to 

acre. 
Square plan — For small orchards. 
Straight rows — Beauty, conven- 
ience. 
Planting board — Accuracy. 
Trim roots — About eight inches long. 
Depth — Plant deeper than in nursery. 
Firm soil around tree — Two-inch 
mulch on top. 



Moisture — Do not water unless very 
dry. 
Training the Tree — 

Cut top to within two feet. 

Prune each spring. 

Low, well formed top desired. 
Cultivation— 

To secure rapid growth. 

Use disk and harrow. 
Protection- 
Do not cultivate too close. 

Wrappers protect from sun scald. 

Soil mounted around crowns in fall. 

Snow sheds — Prevent breaking 
branches. 



HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 343 

Washes — Protect from insects. Home markets — Keeping apples. 

Spraying — Keeps trees healthy. Selling on the trees. 

Marketing Fruit— Picking and packing. 

REFERENCES 

Popular Fruit Growing by Green, Productive Orcharding by Sears, and Prin- 
ciples of Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 

Whether in town or country every home should have its 
vegetable garden. No spot pays so well, and the pleasure 
one derives from contact with the garden on a pleasant 
spring morning or summer evening is more than its money 
value. Without a garden, fewer vegetables are used, as 
they must be purchased, and the cost of living is increased 
to the extent that more high priced meat and groceries 
must take their place. It is a good plan to leave part of 
the garden work to the women and children, but not all of 
it. The preparation of the soil, laying out the garden so that 
machinery can be used, and part of the work should be 
done by the men. The garden should contain a good 
variety of vegetables for use from early spring until late 
fall. A few simple tools kept sharp, and a garden drill for 
sowing and cultivating, if the patch is large, are necessary 
for good results. 

Location of Vegetable Garden— Similar plants should be together. 

Near the house — Saves time. Neatness and beauty — Straight rowa 

Fenced in — Or fence chicken yard. symmetrical. 

Classes of Gardens — Soil- 
Market garden— Sandv loam— Clav subsoil- 
Planning— Grow for demands of Rich soil _ Ba rnyard manure well 



market. 



rotted. 



Marketing-Delivery, packing, Commercial fertilizers-Nitrate of 

transportation. , 

„ /-i j soda, etc. 

Home Garden — 



May be part of market garden. 



Southern slope- 



Small kitchen garden. Warmer in early spring. 

Arrangement— Best * OT vmes > ripening tomatoes, 

Must be more or less permanent — melons, etc. 

Perennials — Together, cultivation. Preparation for planting — 

Plan the garden— On paper during Plowed in fall— Kill weeds and in- 



wmter. 



sects. 



Rows far apart — Use horse for cul- Disked and harrowed in spring, 

tivating. Free from clods, sticks, stones, etc. 



344 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Hotheads and Cold Frames- 
Hotbed started early — 

Size — As wide as sash used and any 

length. 
Location — South side of building 

or fence. 
Manure — Horse manure, depth, a 

foot or more. 
Glass — Use ordinary storm sash. 
Ventilation — After seventy-five or 

eighty degrees. 
Watering — Each morning. 
Plants — Early plants for trans- 
planting. 
Cold frame — 

Use — For transplanting from hot- 
bed. 
Transplant to garden as desired. 
Cover only when in danger of frost. 
Planting Garden — 
From cold frames — 
For early use. 

Main crop after danger of frost. 
Hardy vegetables — 

As early as ground can be worked. 
Onions, carrots, peas, etc. 
Main crop — Later than hardy vari- 
eties. 
Vines — After danger of all frost is 
past. 

For fall use — Late plantings. 
Methods of plantings — 

Hand planting for small amounts. 
Garden drill for large garden. 
Firming — When ground is dry. 
Cultivation — 

Hoeing and hand cultivators — 
For small gardens. 
After large cultivators in market 
gardens. 
Horse cultivators — 

More effective — Save time. 
Time of cultivation — 

Often enough to kill weeds. 
After rain to conserve moisture. 
From early spring to late fall. 
Friends and Foes- 
Garden friends — 

Animals — Toads, frogs, snakes, 

some birds. 
Imsects — Ladybug, bees, ants, Ich- 
neumen fly. 
Garden foes — 

Animals — Chickens, gophers, 

birds, etc. 
Insects — Squash bug, potato beetle, 
cabbage butterfly, cutworm, etc. 



Plant diseases — Potatoes seab and 

rot, etc. 
Weeds — Consume nourishment and 
moisture. 
Harvesting— 

As needed during growing season. 
In the fall — 

Care in gathering. 
Selecting, grading, and storing. 
Suggestive Vegetables to Grow— 
Tubers — Underground stems. (Po- 
tatoes) — 

Early varieties — Early Rose, Early 

Ohio, Cobbler, Eureka Extra, 

Noroton Beauty, and Triumph. 

Late varieties — Burbank, Carmen, 

Rural, Walter Raleigh, and Pin- 

gree. 

Roots — Root of plant developed for 

food — 

Require heavy rich soil. 
Kinds — Carrots, parsnips, turnips, 
beets, rutabagas, radish, sweet 
potatoes, and salsify. 
Bulbs- 
Onions — Several varieties, sandy 
loam. 
Seed vegetables — 
Peas and beans. 
Leaf plants — 

Kinds — Cabbage, cauliflower, cel- 
ery, lettuce, spinach, kohl rabi, 
Swiss chard, cress and kale. 
Special care needed for many of 
these. 
Vines — ■ 

Planting time — Late, danger of 

frost. 
Kinds — Watermelon, muskmelon, 
squash, pumpkin, citron and cu- 
cumber. 
Herbs — 

Used for flavoring. 
Kinds — Sage, mint, summer and 
winter savories, lavender, annis, 
dill, and thyme. 
Corn — 

Sweet — For table use and canning. 
Pop — For winter use. 
Fruit vegetables — 

Grown for the fruit of the plant. 
Kinds — Tomatoes, ground cherries, 
etc. 
Perennials — 

Remain in garden from vear to year. 
Kinds — Rhubarb, horse radish, 
asparagus, etc. 



HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 



345 




Courtesy of The Farmer. 
Figure 127. Preparing the soil for a school garden. 




Courtesy of The Farmer. 

Figure 128. Caring for the school garden during the summer. 

REFERENCES 

Good books for the library are Green's Vegetable Gardening, Gardening for 
Pleasure by Henderson, Success in Market-Gardening by Rawson, Productive 
Vegetable Growing by Lloyd, and Garden Farming by Corbett. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY BOOKLETS 

Animals are always interesting to children. The boy or 
girl who has not had a pet lamb, chicken, duck, colt or 
some other animal, has missed a great deal. The work in 
this branch of general agriculture in the elementary school 
is more difficult to teach, because it is hard to study the 
animals at first hand. The booklet plan will help solve 
this problem, however, and, if the students will observe the 
animals at home, and the school take a few field excursions 
to supplement the outlines suggested, the study may become 
delightful. 

The production of live stock is one of the greatest indus- 
tries in the country. With the present demand far in 
excess of the supply in nearly all branches of live stock, it 
would seem that something besides high prices is neces- 
sary to stimulate still greater interest in stock raising. The 
great ranges for feeding sheep and cattle are practically 
gone. The bulk of the live stock for the markets must, 
therefore, be raised on the farms. Since stock raising is 
always more profitable than grain farming, and the produc- 
tion of a reasonable amount of live stock makes possible a 
well balanced rotation plan, animal husbandry would seem 
to be a very important subject for the rural schools, and to 
provide an excellent opportunity to do practical work in 
arithmetic, in computing rations, etc., and to get practice 
in composition in the booklet work. 

A great number of topics present themselves as suit- 
able for animal husbandry booklets. Among them are the 
following: Poultry for Pleasure and Profit, Farm Animals, 
The Care of Animals, Veterinary Science on the Farm, 

346 • 



ANIMAL HU SB ANDY BOOKLETS 



347 



Swine, Sheep Raising, Horses, the Dairy, Creameries and 
Cheese Factories, Animal Diseases, Beef Raising, Silos and 
Silage, How to Feed Animals and Bee Culture. 

POULTRY OUTLINE 



The Poultry Industry — 

Distribution — All parts of the world. 

Value — Over twenty billion dollars a 
year in United States. 

Profitable, if properly handled. 
Poultry Includes— 

Chickens — Most important. 

Turkeys — Bring highest prices. 

Ducks and geese — Foragers. 

Other fowls — Not important com- 
mercially. 
Origin of Domesticated Poultry — 

Fowls — Wild jungle fowl of India. 

Turkeys — From wild turkey of Amer- 
ica. 

Ducks and geese — Native to America 
and Europe. 
Housing of Poultry — 

Selection of site — Dry ground, south- 
ern exposure. 

Furnishings movable — Cleaned easily. 

Roosts comfortable — Two by fours, 
no cracks. 

Curtains — For cold weather. 

Ventilation, — Muslin windows no 
draughts. 

Floor — Wooden better than cement. 

Number together — Not over fifty. 

Special roosts — For ducks and geese. 

Sanitation — Clean, wnitewashed, no 
vermin. 

Nests — Partly hidden, comfortable. 
Breeding Poultry — 

Pure bred stock most profitable. 

Common stock improved — 

By buying standard bred fowls. 
By buying pure bred eggs. 
By selecting the best stock for 
mating. 

Care of eggs for hatching — Must be 
fresh. 

Hatching the eggs — 

With hens — In small flocks. 
Incubators — Used for large flocks. 
Feeds and Feeding- 
Grain feeds — 

Corn — One third of feed for grow- 
ing stock, nearly all corn for fat- 
tening. 



Wheat — Screenings, use as scratch 

feed. 
Oats — Sprouted, good for laying 

hens. 
Barley — Good for fattening. 
Buckwheat and millet — Mixed with 

other feed. 
Cracked mixtures — G o o d for 
scratch feed. 
Green feeds — For chickens not on 
range. 
Sprouted grains — Oats, barley, etc. 
Clover, alfalfa. 

Roots — Mangels, turnips, beets, 
and cabbage. 
Grit and shells — 

Lime — For laying hens. 
Coarse sand and gravel. 
Ground and crushed rock. 
Oyster and other shells. 
Meat feeds — 

Beef scraps, bits from the table, etc. 
Wet and dry feeding — 

Wet mash at noon — Corn, oats, 

bran, shorts. 
Dry mash in self-feeding hopper, 
same mixture. 
Balanced diet — Work out a balanced 
ration. 
Diseases of Poultry — 
Diseases — 

Gapes — Worms in the windpipe. 
Cholera — Germ disease, contagious. 
Roup — Cold appears, in winter and 
spring. 
Pests- 
Mites — Appear in warm weather, 

filthy house. 
Lice^-Body and head. 
Remedies and preventives — 
Disinfectant in water and feed. 
Patent remedies applied with 

feather. 
Kerosene on roosts and heads of 

birds. 
Fumigate with sulphur. 
Boxes for dust baths. 
Eggs- 
Gathered daily and kept clean. 



348 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Market often in warm weather. 
Laws for protecting the public. 
Records — Get sheets from experiment 

station. 
Sell only uniform size. 
Marketing — 

Eggs — See above. 
Poultry- 
Alive — Shipped in crates. 
Dressed — Local and city markets. 
Breeds best adapted. 
Standard Bred Poultry — 
Term means pure bred stock. 
American Poultry Association deter- 
mines standards. 
Poultry shows and exhibitions. 
Meat Breeds— 

Brahmas — Light and dark — 

Weight — Nine to twelve pounds. 
Meat rather coarse. 
Cochins — Black, white and partridge. 
Weight — Nearly as large as Brah- 
mas. 
Feathered legs. 
Langshans — Black and white — 

Smaller and more active than the 
others. 
Egg Breeds- 
Leghorn — Several varieties, single 
and rose comb — 
Native of Italy. 

Active — Great layers, hard to 
fatten. 



white, single and 




Minorca — Black, 

rose comb — 

Native island of Minorca. 

Large eggs. 
Hamburgs — Several varieties — 

Active — Small eggs. 

Native of Germany. 
Andalusions — Dove color — 

Not so common as the others. 
General Purpose Breeds — 

Plymouth Rock — A great favorite — 

Originated in Massachusetts. 

Barred, white, buff, partridge, silver 
penciled. 

All single combs. 
Wyandotte — A little smaller than the 

Rocks — 

American breed. 

White, silver laced, golden, buff, 
black, partridge, and silver 
penciled. 
Orpington — Large, plump chicken — 

English bred. 

White, black, buff, jubilee. 
Rhode Island Red — Meat excellent 

flavor — 

Cross from all known varieties. 

Rose and single comb varieties. 
Other breeds for general purpose — 

Java — Black and mottled. 

Dominique — Resemble Plymouth 
Rock. 




Figtre 129. White Wyandotte 
cockerel. 



Figure 130. White Wyandotte 
pullet. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDY BOOKLETS 



349 



Dorking — White, silver gray, col- 
ored. 
Houdan — French breed, crest on 

head. 
Cornish Indian — Meat excellent 
flavor. 
Fancy Breeds- 
Ornamental, not practical. 
Kinds — Game, Polish, Sultan, Silky, 
Bantam. 
Ducks — 

Pekin — Perhaps the most popular — 
Originated in China. 
Good for meat and eggs. 
Rouen — Resembles the wild mallard. 
Originated in England. 
General purpose. 
Aylesbury — Larger than Pekin — 
Originated in England. 
Meat variety chiefly. 
Indian Runner — Small, erect pos- 
ture — 

Called Leghorn of the duck family. 
Great egg producer. 



Black Cayuga — Dark color — 

Originated in America. 

General purpose. 
Muscovy — Hiss, rather than quack — 

Originated in South America. 

Do not resemble other breeds. 

Meat cannot be equaled in flavor. 

Male very large, female small. 

Fine layers, and good setters. 
Geese- 
Toulouse — Very large, gray, have 

pouch. 
Embden — White, develop early. 
African — Finer grained flesh than 

others. 
Chinese — Small, not profitable for 

farm. 
Turkeys- 
Origin — All from American wild 

turkey. 
Breeds — 

Bronze — Largest, most popular. 

Narragansett — Gray, quiet. 

White Holland — Lays well, quiet. 

Others — Buff, Slate, Black, Bour- 
bon Red. 



REFERENCES 

Progressive Poultry Culture by Brigham, Productive Poultry Husbandry by 
Lewis, Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture by Robinson, Farm Poultry by 
Watson, and Poultry by Lippincott. 



CATTLE 



Origin- 
Most of our cattle are developed from 

English breeds. 
From cross with American buffalo. 
Beef Breeds — 
General features — 

Block type, ability to take on flesh. 

Low, broad, deep. 
Shorthorn or Durham — 

English origin. 

Best known beef type. 
Hereford — Called "white faces" — 

English origin, large, over a ton. 

Becoming very popular. 
Aberdeen Angus — Hornless — 

Scotch origin. 
Large proportion of meat when 

dressed. 
Red Poll — Medium size, harmless — 

English origin. 



General purpose. 
Galloway — Hardy breed, hornless — 
Scotch origin. 
Hide used for robes. 
Others — Devon Brown, Swiss. 
Raising beef animals — 

Breeding, housing, pasturing, fat- 
tening. 
Marketing — Local and city mar- 
kets. 
The packing houses — 

Location, products, by-products. 
Comparison of prices with live 
stock. 
Dairy Breeds — 
General features — 
Angular in form. 
Large udder. 

Large capacity for turning feed 
into milk. 



350 



RURAL EDUCATION 




Figure 131. The dairy type. 

The Jersey — Most popular in United 

States — 

Native to Island of Jersey. 

Rich milk, not large quantity. 
Guernsey — Very popular in some sec- 
tions — 

Native to Island of Guernsey. 

Milk yellow, more than Jerseys. 
Holstein-Friesians — 

Originated in Holland. 

Large flow of milk — Good cheese 
milk. 
Ayrshire — 

Scotch origin. 

Much milk, not rich in butter fat. 
Other Breeds — Dutch Belted, Kerry, 

French Canadian. 
Care of dairy herd — 

Breeding, housing, pasturing. 

Balanced rations for dairy cattle. 

Herd and individual record. 
Dairy products — 

Milk, cream, butter, cheese, etc. 

High butter tat records. 

Laws regulating dairy products. 
Machinery used — 

Milking machines — Not in general 
use. 

Cream separators — Keeping clean. 

Apparatus for weighing and record- 
ing milk. 



Courtesy of The Fanner. 

A pure bred Guernsey cow. 

Babcock tester — To determine but- 
ter fat. 
"Scrubs"— 

These are mixed breeds and no 

breeds. 
Are not profitable tor milk or beef. 
Diseases of Cattle- 
Tuberculosis — 

Poorly ventilated barns. 
Tuberculin test — How given, re- 
sults. 
Transmitted in milk. 
Anthrax — 

Spores of germs very resistant. 
Other diseases — 

Blackleg, lockjaw, pneumonia. 
Preventives — Sprays, fresh air — 
Disinfectants — Bichloride of mer- 
cury, chloride of lime, formalde- 
hyde, carbolic acid, cresol. 
How to disinfect stables. 
Value of Cattle— 
To the farm — 

Produce meat and dairy products. 
Produce cheap fertilizer. 
Permit a rotation plan to be fol- 
lowed. 
To the nation — 

Dairy products are second only to 

corn. 
Beef cattle rank next to dairy pro- 
ducts. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDY BOOKLETS 



351 



REFERENCES 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry by Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm 
Animals by Plumb, and Dairy Cattle and Milk Production by Eckles. 



HOGS 



Importance- 
Relation to corn and grain growing. 
Value in the United States. 

Lard Type — 

'General features — 

Capable of taking on fat. 

Thick body, snort head, short legs. 

Poland China — 

Originated in Ohio. 
Black, with white on face, tail and 
feet. 

Berkshire — 
English origin. 
Erect ears, snout upturned. 

Chester White- 
Originated in Pennsylvania. 



Drooping ears — Rather slow ma- 
turing. 
Duroc Jersey — 

American origin. 

Red color, ears droop forward. 
Bacon Type- 
General features — 

Produced for side meat or bacon. 

Long body and legs, long snout. 
Large Yorkshire — 

English origin. 

White color, ears erect, large size. 
Tamworth — 

English bred. 

Red color, long deep body, long 
snout. 




Figure 132. The lard type. 



Courtesy of The Farmer. 

A pure bred Poland China. 



Other breeds — 

The Thin Rind, or Hampshire. 

The Razor-backs of the South. 
Breeding- 
Select a breed and build it up. 

By selection. 

By new blood. 



Housing — 

Hog houses — How 
Keeping clean. 

Care of young pigs. 
Feeds and Feeding — 

For growing. 

For fattening. 

Balanced rations. 



built. 



352 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Diseases of Hogs- 
Cholera — Causes, remedies, preven- 
tives. 
Other diseases. 

Curing Pork— 

At the packing houses. 



Products and by-products. 
On the farm — 
Salted pork. 
Dried pork. 
Smoked hams and bacons. 



REFERENCES 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry by Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm 
Animals by Plumb, Productive Swine Husbandry by Day, and Swine Husbandry 
by Coburn. 

HORSES 




Figure 133. The draft type. 



■ -:v-t 



Courtesy ot The Farmer. 

A pure bred Percheron. 



History of the Horse- 
Prehistoric horse — 

Twelve different stages shown by 
fossils from five toes to solipeds. 
Driven from early home in woods 
by other animals, and life on 
plains developed the single toe 
of the hoof. 



Original horse only the size of the 

fox. 
Historic horse — 

First mentioned in 1712 B. C. when 

Joseph exchanged horses for corn. 
Xenephon described a war horse. 
First domesticated in Egypt and 

Arabia. 



ANIMAL HU8BANDY BOOKLETS 



353 



American horses all imported. The 
"Broncho" escaped from early 
Spanish explorers. 
Uses — 

Probably first used in war by the an- 
cients. 
Later used in chariot races by Greeks 

and Romans. 
Valuable for farm work. 
Hauling loads and vehicles. 
Saddle and driving horses. 
Types — 

Draft: Suited to farm work and heavy 

hauling — 

Percheron — Most popular in Amer- 
ica, native of France; gray and 
black in color; docile; active, and 
has excellent feet. 

Clydesdale — Draft horse of Scot- 
land and popular in America; 
color usually bay or brown, ra- 
pid walkers; "feathery" legs. 

Belgian — Bred in Belgium; broad 
back; short legs; small feet; chest- 
nut bay and brown color. 

English Shire — Popular in England; 
short legs, large feet; slow walk- 
er; bay or brown with white 
lower legs and forehead. 

Suffolk — Originated in Suffolk 
county, England; common farm 
horse of that country; chestnut 
color; small ears; powerful body. 

French draft — Larger than Per- 
cheron, but not so popular. 

Coach: Stylish and fighter than 
draft horses. 

Hackney — Blocky form; gait at- 
tractive; several colors; "high 
stepper;" most popular carriage 
horse. 

German — Not well established in 



America; long neck and legs; 

general purpose horse. 

French — Long stride; good action, 

various colors; popular in France. 

Cleveland Bay — English origin; 

largest of type; bay in color; 

poor action. 

Roadster: Small head and pointed 

ears; speed — 

American Trotter or Standard 

Bred — Most noted families are 

Hambletonians, Clays, Morgans, 

Pilots and Hals American Breed. 

Saddlers: Saddle or harness horse — 

Arabian — Original breed; speed 

type. 
Thoroughbred — E n g 1 i s h saddle 

horse. 
American — From Arabian and thor- 
oughbreds. 
Pon3 r : Small horses of both draft and 
speed types — 
Shetland — Shetland Islands; gentle 

for children. 
Welch— Wales. 

Indian Ponies— Western U. S. 
Mustang Broncho — Western 
plains. 
Hybirds — 

Mules — Not a true breed; cross 
between a donkey and horse, 
hardy; long lived; fine draft ani- 
mals. 
Care of Horses — 
Proper shelter. — 
Kind of stables. 
Cost. 
Feeding — 

In summer and winter. 
Balanced rations. 
Training — 
At what age? 
How "broken." 



REFERENCES 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry by Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm 
Animals by Plumb, Productive Horse Husbandry by Gay. 



BIRDS THAT I KNOW 

Classes of Birds — Birds that go South for the winter. 

Land birds. Make a table of migration with dates 

Water birds. Bird Protection — 

Game birds. National and state laws. 

Birds of prey. Dangers from cold and wet. 

Migration— Cats and other animals. 



Birds that do not migrate. 



Bird houses. 



23- 



354 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Bird Study— 

From books. 
In the field. 
Field glasses. 
Notebook. 
Injurious Birds; Destroy— 
English Sparrow — 

Feeds on grains almost entirely. 
Common in every community. 
Kingfisher — 

Blue-gray in color; loud, harsh call. 
Around ponds, lakes and rivers. 
Feeds on fish, frogs, lizards. 
American crow — 

The common black crow. 
More injurious than beneficial. 
Beneficial Birds: Protect— 
House wren — 

Brown color; small. 
Feeds wholly upon insects. 
Song sparrow — 

Most abundant of all our birds; 

pleasing song. 
Larger than English sparrow; red- 
dish brown back. 
Feeds on insects, grass and weed 
seeds. 
Orchard oriole — 

Male, chestnut and black; female 
yellowish and gray; 7 l A inches 
long. 
Feeds on insects chiefly ; about 15% 
fruit and grain. 
Bank swallow — 

Lives in holes in banks of earth; 

smallest of swallows. 
Feeds wholly on insects. 
Barn swallow — 

Builds nests in barns and other 

buildings. 
Most graceful and beautiful of 

swallows. 
Feeds on insects almost entirely. 
Blue jay — 

Very beautiful; large; noisy. 
Feeds on insects, mice, weed seed 
and grain, 
Cardinal — 

Male, red; female, gray. 
Feeds on insects and weed seed. 
Red-winged blackbird — 

Male, black with red shoulders; fe- 
males, brownish black. 



Feeds on cutworms, grasshoppers 

plant lice, grain, fruit and small 

animals. 
Red-headed woodpecker — 

Adults have entire head and breast 

red. 
Feeds on injurious insects, wild 

fruit, weed seed, birds' eggs. 
Killdeer — 

Easily recognized by its call. 
Feeds entirely upon injurious 

insects. 
Quail or "Bob White" — 

The common game bird of America. 
Feeds on weed seed, injurious in- 
sects, fruits and grain. 
Dove — 

Useful for food, but should be 

protected. 
Feeds on weed seed chiefly, and 

grains left on the ground in the 

fields. 
Screech owl — 

Very useful; recognized from call. 
Feeds on rats, English sparrows, 

cutworms, caterpillars, crickets, 

etc. 
Barn owl — 

Found around buildings. 
Feeds on mice, rats, rabbits, etc. 
Buzzard — ■ 

Beneficial to public health. 
Feeds almost entirely upon carrion. 
Humming-bird — 

Very small, not much larger than 

bumble bee. 
Feeds on gnats, ants, parasitic 

wasps, as well as nectar from 

trees and flowers. 
Cowbird — 

Male, greenish black with brown 

head; female, dull gray. Lays 

eggs in others bird nests and 

leaves young to be cared for. 
Found among cattle, hence the 

name. Feeds on gnats, flies and 

other insects. 
Meadow lark — 

Beautiful songster; brown back, 

yellow underneath. 
Found perched on post or other 

object. 
Feeds on insects chiefly. 



REFERENCES 

Our Common Birds and How to Know Them by Grant, Our Native Birds 
by Lange, Bird Neighbors by Blanchan, Bird Guide by Reed, and Field Book of 
American Wild Birds and Their Music by Matthews. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
HOME ECONOMICS BOOKLETS 

If the sewing and hot lunch work is carried out as sug- 
gested in the chapters on those subjects, the present out- 
lines for booklets for the language classes will supplement 
that work. If the school is not doing sewing or serving, 
then the home economic booklets are all the more nec- 
essary. Reference for this work can be obtained free of 
charge from the state and national Departments of Agri- 
culture and from library books. 

A suggestive list of topics suitable for booklets is given: 
Household Management, Home Sanitation, Home Con- 
veniences, Flies and Their Control, The Kitchen Garden, 
Home Decoration, Home Furnishings, Contagious and Infec- 
tious Diseases, Human Foods, Canning without Powders, 
Bread Baking, Egg Cookery, The Fireless Cooker, Paper 
Bag Cookery, Pure Milk, Dairy Products, Garment Making, 
The Clothes Moth, How Needles and Pins Are Made, But- 
ton Manufactures, How Cloth Is Made, How Common Salt 
Is Made, Curing Meats. 



FLIES AND THEIR CONTROL 



Classification— ■ 

Diptera, or two-winged. 
Biting and lapping insects. 
House Fly, or Typhoid Fly- 
Home — 

In filthy places. 

In barns and houses. 
Disease carrier — 

Typhoid fever. 

Tuberculosis. 

Dysentery. 
Sources of disease germs — 

Outhouses. 

Dead animals, dump grounds. 

Barnyard manure. 

Garbage cans. 



Infected persons. 
Spitting on walks, floors, etc. 
Life history of fly — 

Adult lives over winter in warm 

place. 
Pupa is protected over winter. 
Emerges first warm days of spring. 
Female lays about one hundred 

eggs. 
Maggots hatch in eight hours. 
Maggots full grown in six days. 
Pupa stage three to five days. 
Full grown fly in about twelve days. 
Rate of increase enormous — 

Figure the increase of one fly for 

season. 



355 



356 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Checked by natural means. 
Control of flies — 

Screens — For doors, windows, out- 
houses. 

Allow no barnyard manure to 
collect. 

Remove all garbage piles. 

Have garbage pail with cover. 

Have septic tank — Do away with 
outhouses. 

Poison with formalin in milk and 
water mixture. 

Protect all food. 

Fly contests — Children collecting 
for prizes. 
Flytraps — 

The Minnesota trap — Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

Homemade traps — Costfe w cents. 

Quite effective. 



Bait important— Bread and milk, 
meat. 
Stock Flies- 
Varieties — 

Horn flies— Cluster around horns 

of cattle. 
Stable flies— Resemble house fly, 

but bite. 
The botfly— Maggot attached to 
stomach of horse. 
Feeding habits — 
Blood of animals. 
Nectar of flowers. 
Preventives — 

Currying horses and cattle. 

Solution -with strong odor. 

Darkened stables. 

Sprays. 

Ointments and kerosene. 



REFERENCES 
Bulletins and books on insects, sanitation, etc. 



HOUSEHOLD FRIENDS AND FOES— (Bacteria) 



Dust- 
Where Found — 

City homes — Street dust. 
Country homes — Road and field 

dust. 
Ships at sea — Coal and meteoric 

dust. 
Everywhere — Atmosphere. 
Necessity of Dust — 
No life without dust. 
No light without dust particles. 
Movements of Dust — 
Winds. 

Air currents as we move through it. 
Composition of Dust — ■ 

Particles of wood and coal. 

Bits of clothing, house furnishings, 

etc. 
Process of wearing away in all 

things. 
Home of numerous germs. 
Dust "Gardens" — 

For experimenting with dust. 
Moist bread in warm place — Keep 

covered. 
Moist meat kept warm — Cover 

with glass — Watch. 
Keep milk in warm place — Watch 
changes. 



Place piece of meat in covered dish 
— Boil half hour, keep out air, 
no change. Why? 
Canned goods do not spoil — Why? 
Bacteria Dust Plants — 
Where Found — 
Kinds — 

Rod shaped — Bacilli. 
Ball shaped — Cocci. 
Spiral shaped — Spirilla. 
Classification as plants — 

Because tney can live on mineral 

matter. 
Animals cannot do this. 
Life history — 

Multiply very rapidly— Millions in 

twenty-four hours. 
Reproduce by simple division. 
Food — Milk, meat juices, fruit, 

sweets, animals, man. 
Mostly parasites — Live on prepared 

food. 
Digest their food and throw off 

waste products. 
Cause changes in food products. 
Cause diseases— Waste products 
are poisonous. 
Size of bacteria — 

Never seen with naked eye. 



HOME ECONOMICS BOOKLETS 



357 



Some require very powerful micro- 
scopes. 

Great number make up for small 
size. 
Power of movement — ■ 

Some are stationary. 

Jerky movements — Slow motion. 

Whip-like projections — Cilia. 
Spore state — 

Some bacteria can remain dormant 
for years. 

This is called the "spore stage." 

Difficult to kill such species. 

Others cannot do this. 

These are easily destroyed. 
How destroyed — 

Most forms by boiling or baking. 

By direct sunlight and fresh air. 

By medical treatment. 
Economy in nature — 

Some are very useful. 

Some are very harmful. 
Yeast Dust Plants — 
Size and structure — 

Much larger than bacteria. 

Single cell — Living plant — B u d - 
ding. 
Requirements for growth — 

Moist warm place. 

Temperature from 70° to 90° F. 

Killed with heat at about 130° F. 

Can stand more cold than heat. 
Economy in nature — 

Used in bread making. 

The CO 2 given off raises the bread. 



Used in breweries. 
Mold Dust Plants- 
Life history — 

Spores— Correspond to seeds of 
higher plants. 

Present in dust at all times. 
Requirements for growth. 
Economy in nature — 

Useful in making Limburger cheese, 
etc. 

Harmful — Cause ringworm, thrush, 
liver spots. 
How Dust Plants Are Useful — 
Bacteria as scavengers. 
Bacteria in the soil — Nitrogen. 
In commercial world — 

Dyeing industries. 

Flax manufactures. 

Curing and tanning. 
In producing flavors. 
Butter making. 
Cheese making. 
Vinegar production. 
Injurious Dust Plants — 
Bacteria cause diseases — 

Typhoid fever. 

Tuberculosis. 

Diphtheria. 

Other diseases. 
Infections or contagious dis 

Explain how caused. 
The "spoiling" of food stuffs. 
Preventives — - 

Preserving foods. 

Pasteurization. 



REFERENCES 

Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds by Conn, Household Bacteriology by Buchanan, 
Bacteria in relation to Country Life by Lipman, and Dust and Its Dangers by 
Pruden. 



BREAD BAKING 

This is one of the things every girl should learn to do 
well. Experience alone will not produce good bread bakers. 
The scientific principles must be understood. No experi- 
ment should be more interesting than that of learning to 
bake bread. If there are no facilities at school, do the work 
at home and tell how you did it in the booklet on "Bread 
Baking." Local and state contests should be encouraged. 



358 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Minnesota has just completed a bread baking contest with 
over eighty counties represented and more than sixteen 
hundred contestants. Complete directions are given in 
Volume III, Number 7, Rural School Agriculture, published 
by the Minnesota Extension Division. The outline here 
given is based upon the suggestions given in that publication. 




Figure 134. Ready for state contest. These were all prize winners in com- 
petition with over sixteen hundred entries. 



Origin and History of Bread Mak- 
ing- 
Early unleavened bread. 
Leavened bread known by ancients. 
Kinds of Bread- 
Made from what sources. 
Methods of making. 
In different countries. 
Baker's bread — 

Sometimes cheap flour, alum, etc. 
Homemade bread — 
Pure and wholesome. 
Essential Factors in Bread Mak- 
ing — 
Flour — 

Bread is light because wheat con- 
tains gluten. 



No other grain contains gluten of 
desirable quality. 

White flour mixed with rye to 
make it light. 
Yeast — 

Dust plant found in the air. 

Used commercially. 

Gives off CO2 (carbon dioxide) 
which raises the bread. 

Compressed yeast — Very active, 
will not keep. 

Dry yeast — Cakes soaked, bread 
sponge. 

Liquid yeast — Homemade, "start- 
er,'' potatoes. 
Liquids — 

Milk — Better crust usually. 



HOME ECONOMICS BOOKLETS 



359 



Water — Often used. 
Potato water — From white pota- 
toes. 
Buttermilk — Sometimes an un- 
pleasant flavor. 
Other Ingredients — 
Sugar — - 

Food for yeast plant — Hastens 

rising. 
Two teaspoonfuls to a loaf of 
bread. 
Salt- 
Used for flavor. 
One teaspoonful to a loaf. 
Shortening, or fat- 
Makes bread more tender. 
One or two teaspoonfuls to a loaf. 
Best Results Obtained— 
By having good materials. 
Constant care. 
Correct temperature — 
75° F. to 95° F. 
Easily killed if above 95° F. 
Rises too slowly if below 75° F. 
Need of thermometer. 
The Short Process- 
Time: four to six hours. 
Compressed yeast used. 
Proportions for one loaf — 

Milk or water, one cupful. Flour. 
33^ cupfuls. Compressed yeast 
Yi cake. Salt, 1 teaspoonful. 
Sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls. Fat, 1 
teaspoonful. 
Milk or water heated to 95° F. 
Put warm liquid over yeast cake to 

soften. 
Balance of liquid over other ingre- 
dients. 



Add yeast and flour — Mix on board. 
Place in well oiled pan in water 100° 

F. 
Bread should rise until double its 

bulk. 
Knead from three to five minutes — 

Distribute gas. 
Shape loaf and put in oiled pan. 
Bake from forty-five minutes to one 
hour. 
The Long Process- 
Set sponge at night — Keep warm. 
Proportions for one loaf — 

Milk or water, 1 cupful. Flour, 
3Jij cupfuls. Dry yeast, "%> 
cake. Salt, 1 teaspoonful. Su- 
gar, 2 teaspoonfuls. Fat, 1 tea- 
spoonful. 
Proceed as in short method. 
Homemade Yeast- 
Boiling potato water, one cupful. 
Flour, 4 teaspoonfuls. Sugar, 1 
teaspoonful. Yeast, 1 cake. 
Mix flour with boiling potato water. 
Add one fourth of a cup of mashed 

potato, and sugar. 
Add yeast cake and one half of a cup 

of water at 75° F. 
Let stand twenty-four hours — Stir. 
Score Card for Judging — 
Total hundred points — 

General appearanc e — T w e n t y 

points. 
Flavor — Odor and taste, thirty- 
five points. 
Lightness — Yeast killed, fifteen 

points. 
Crumb — Texture, color, grain, 
thirty points. 



REFERENCES 

Domestic Science: Principles and Application by Bailey, Chemistry of Bread 
Making by Grant, and all standard work3 on this subject. 



CHAPTER XXV 
OTHER BOOKLETS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 

There are other topics of sufficient interest for booklet 
work that do not come under any of the preceding chapters. 
A few are suggested: 

Good Roads, Cement and Its Uses on the Farm, Pre- 
servatives for Wood, Tools and Their Uses, Drainage, 
Taxes, The Resources of Our State, Imports and Exports 
of the United States, The American School System, The 
Modern Home, Farming as a Business, Patent Medicines, 
The Value of Farmers' Clubs, Consolidation of Rural 
Schools, Industrial Contests, Our Trees and Woods, Birds 
That I Know. 



WOOD PRESERVATIVES AND SUBSTITUTES 



Causes of Decay of Wood — 

Weathering — Water, wind, etc. 
Fungi — Small plant organisms. 
Increase in Cost of Wood — 

Lumber — 

Scarcity in many parts of country. 
Some kinds can no longer be ob- 
tained. 
Posts — 

Scarcity of timber. 
Great demand — Fencing, railroads, 
telephone. 
More Profitable to Preserve Wood — 
Than to buy new material. 
Than to use other materials than 
wood. 
Paints- 
How made — White lead, oil, coloring. 
For houses — Outside. 
For other buildings — Cheaper grade. 
Inside paints — How different. 
Cost — Always cheaper to paint than 
not to. 
Varnishes- — 

How made — Shellac, wood filler, etc. 
For carriages, automobiles, etc. 
Indoor varnishes. 



For furniture. 
For floors. 
Oil and Wax— 

For floors. 
For furniture. 
Other uses. 
Preservatives for Posts- 
Cause of rot at base — 

Dampness. 
. Soil bacteria. 
■Substitutes for wooden posts — 

Iron — Too expensive. 

Cement — Limited to soil without 
alkali. 
Durability of posts depends upon — 

Kind of wood. 

Rate of growth. 

Age of tree. 

How seasoned. 
Prevention of rot — 

Exclude air and moisture. 

Poison wood and kill fungi. 
Old methods — 

Charring — Good, but takes time. 

Whitewash — Not durable. 

Paint — Ground moisture softens it. 

Coal tar — Applied with brush. 



360 



OTHER BOOKLETS 



361 



Poisoning post at ground — Danger- 
ous. 
Other methods — 

Mineral salts — Zinc chloride, cop- 
per sulphate, bichloride of mer- 
cury. Objections to these are 
that they are washed out by 
rains. 
Heavy oils — Coal tar and petro- 
leum. These are best. 
The Creosote Preservative— 
The pressure process — 



Used in railroad ties, timbers, etc. 
Requires expensive apparatus. 
The non-pressure — Open tank — 
Small portable tank. 
Plant not very expensive. 
Dry, soft wood posts used. 
Cost of treatment — Seven to ten 

cents. 
Posts last twenty to thirty years. 
Cheapest kind of post in long run. 
Makes cottonwood as effective as 

red cedar. 



GOOD ROADS 



History of Good Road Movement — 

In Europe — 

Famous roads in history. 
In the United States. 

Bicycles and automobiles — In- 
fluences. 
Good Roads Cheaper than Poor- 
Poor roads always need repairs. 
Comparison of loads hauled over each. 
Road Construction — 

Under direction of competent engi- 
neer— 
The "pathmaster" not ordinarily 

qualified. 
Has made special study of this 
work. 
Laid out as straight as possible — 
In the middle West usually one 
mile apart. 
The road bed — ■ 

Well graded and rounded. 
No sods left in road bed. 
Ditches at sides for drainage. 
Proper grade established. 
Surfacing — 

With top soil in sandy regions. 
With sand or gravel in clay soils. 
Gravel or crushed rock — Best. 



Care of Roads — 

Road overseers. 
Use of split log drag. 
Ordinary "road work" not well done. 
Contracting for up-keep a better plan. 
Classes of Roads — 
National highways — 

The Cumberland road. 

In national parks. 
State roads — 

State Highway Commission. 

Jurisdiction and duties. 
County roads — 

County commissioners. 

Jurisdiction and duties. 
Township roads — 

Supervisors. 

Jurisdiction and duties. 
Road Maintenance — 

State aid for state roads — 

How is work done? 

What constitutes a state road? 
County road and bridge fund — 

Direct tax in each county. 

Levied by commissioners usually. 

Where and how spent. 
Town road and bridge fund — 

Direct tax in each township. 

How administered. 



REFERENCES 

Get pamphlets on data from State Highway Commission. 



DRAINAGE 



Improvements- 
Temporary — 
Fencing. 
Buildings. 
More permanent- 
Drainage. 



Irrigation. 
Drainage Cheaper than More Land- 
Drained land is the richest land. 
Drained for twenty to thirty dollars 



362 



RURAL EDUCATION 



Intensive, not extensive, farming 
pays. 
Open Ditches — 

Necessary where large areas are low. 
Land not wasted when used for 
these — 

Adjoining land more productive. 
All can be cultivated. 
Planning Drainage System- 
Land surveyed. 
Maps platted. 
The lay of the land. 
Construction — 
The "fall"— 

The water runs by gravity. 
Proper depth and width. 
Competent drainage engineer — 

It doesn't pay to "guess" about 
tile. 
Kinds of Drainage — 
Open ditches — 

Remove surface water. 
Cheaply constructed. 
Use plow and scraper. 



Rains wih show where needed. 
Underdrainage — 

Permanent, and gives best results. 
More expensive — Cost of tile. 
Stones sometimes used. 
Tiling best. 
How the tile works. 
Size of tile — Depends upon surface 
conditions, grade, and depth. 
Tools Used — 

The level and stakes — 

Running lines and fixing grades. 
Skeleton spade, long handled shov- 
el, solid spade, tile scoop, tile 
hook. 
Laying the Tile — 

Begin at outlet and lay up stream. 
Care of laterals — Connections. 
Blinding — Covering, to hold in place. 
Protection for outlet — Screen, box. 
Filling the trenches. 
Conclusion. — 

Examples of profitable drainage. 



REFERENCES 

Agricultural Engineering by Davidson, Farm Drainage by French, Engineer- 
ing for Land Drainage by Elliott, and Practical Farm Drainage by Elliott. 



CHAPTER XXVI 



OUTSIDE ACTIVITIES 

There is a feeling that the school should become more 
and more a real community institution. It is no longer a 
question of what the school can do for the farmers' boys 
and girls only, but what it can do for the farmers and the 
farmers' wives themselves. Already the state university, 
through its great and efficient extension division, is making 
the entire state its campus, and the industrial high schools are 
making their influence felt in their communities. The 
inevitable step remains — the reorganization of the rural 
school with the same end in view. Pessimists will remon- 
strate and loudly proclaim that the day of fads has not 
yet passed, as they have always done; progress will be blocked 
here as it has been with the university and high schools 
referred to; but, nevertheless, the day is near at hand when 
the American Rural School will come into its own. Already 
many such schools are the life and inspiration of their 
environments. 

Closer union of school, home and farm, is the slogan 




Figure 135. Studying pure bred swine on a. nearby farm. 
363 



364 RURAL EDUCATION 

of the progressive school to-clay. This idea is being succes- 
fully carried out in many places. Superintendent Barnes 
of the St. Cloud, Minnesota, schools, in a prelude to a plan 
for giving credit for work done outside of school, says: "The 
purpose is to unite the home and the school, to connect 
the work of the school with things going forward outside, 
and to encourage the children to spend part of their spare 
time at some useful occupation — in a measure to direct 
their work along the line of practical, every-day, homely 
tasks — to give all a chance and to train them for work and 
service, not merely the acquisition of knowledge, that they 
may the better fit into actual conditions about them — to 
prepare for complete living — to make the watchword in- 
dustrial, social and home efficiency." 

Activities outside the schoolroom, but under the lead- 
ership and general direction of the school, may be divided 
into two classes — those for the children, and those for their 
parents. Of those suitable for the former may be men- 
tioned the home credit plan, home gardens, corn contests, 
tomato contests. It is important that the the prize element 
of the contest work be made secondary, and the enjoyment 
of learning to improve what has been done the real object. 
School activities carried to the parents may include the 
organization of farmers' clubs, women's clubs, institutes 
held at the rural schools, cow testing associations, the tu- 
berculin test for cattle, hog vaccination, demonstration 
work on farms, teaching use of records and accounts in the 
home and on the farm, pure seed campaigns, drainage 
planned and supervised, etc. The question probably arises, 
"How can the rural school with, perhaps, a woman teacher 
do these things?" She cannot do them all, although the 
one-room school can do much more than it has been doing; 
but the rural school of the immediate future is the associated 



OUTSIDE ACTIVITES 365 

and consolidated school. Such schools, with their special 
teachers, can do all this work and more, as the opportunity 
presents itself. 

The home credit plan is popular in many places. In 
addition to the regular studies which are required for pro- 
motion, the school gives credit for certain work at home. 
Sometimes three hundred points are required for promotion 
with credit and five hundred for promotion with honor. 
The home work is elective on the part of the student, but 
mere "book students" are not passed with "credit" and 
"honor," unless their physical conditions incapacitate 
them for any of the outside work. A great variety of tasks 
and duties are given credit in different schools, each count- 
' ing a definite number of points. A few are taken at random 
from one school, showing the number of points for each. 
Most of the tasks can be done by both boys and girls. The 
time of service for each is six weeks. 

Points Tasks and Duties 

Sawing, splitting and carrying in wood. 

Building the fires or tending the furnace. 

Tending horse or cow and other barn chores. 

Caring for poultry and gathering eggs. 

Delivering milk or carrying water. 

Mowing the laWn. 

Making a bird house and feeding the birds. 

Learning to swim. 

Bathing at least twice a week. 

Retiring before nine o'clock. 

Getting up without being called. 

Preparing one meal daily for the family. 

Getting smaller children ready for school. 

On time at school. Clean, hair brushed, teeth brushed. 

Practicing music lesson thirty minutes dail}\ 

Keeping savings account with growing deposit. 

Making beds. 

Making and baking bread, biscuits, or cake, exhibits. 

Setting table and serving. 

Doing mending. 



1. 


10. 


2. 


10. 


3. 


10. 


4. 


5. 


5. 


5. 


6. 


10. 


7. 


10. 


8. 


10. 


9. 


5. 


10. 


5. 


11. 


5. 


12. 


15. 


13. 


5. 


14. 


10. 


15. 


10. 


16. 


10. 


17. 


5. 


18. 


10. 


19. 


5. 


20. 


5. 



366 



RURAL EDUCATION 



School gardens have been referred to elsewhere. Plans 
for the gardens should be discussed in school and at home 
and definite space and vegetables to be grown determined. 
Directions for preparing the soil, fertilizing, planting, and 
caring for the garden during the summer can be given. 
The students should be encouraged to keep records of the 
work spent on the gardens and of the value of the products. 
Seeds may be furnished by the school or at home, as de- 




Figure 136. School garden products exhibited at the fall contest. 

sired. A "harvest festival" held at the school during the 
early fall will be the crowning event of the garden work. 
Judges from the special departments of the high schools 
can be secured. Prizes should be provided for the dif- 
ferent entries. Flowers should not be overlooked in the 
garden work, nor in the exhibit. A local program and 
refreshments served by the girls of the school will increase 
the interest. 



OUTSIDE ACTIVITES 



367 



Corn contests are not difficult to manage in states where 
the extension division of the university conducts a state 
contest in corn growing. This has been one of the most 
popular contests in Minnesota. The local school should 
get the bulletins available and work up the interest. There 
are always boys in the district who can be interested. 
Farmers themselves should be glad to co-operate in this 




Figure 137. Checking up the boy's corn yield 



work and to contribute liberally toward the prizes, as corn 
contests have greatly increased the corn yields the last 
few years. The winners in this year's Minnesota state 
contest were all over the hundred bushels of dry corn mark, 
with the common run above seventy-five bushels. When 
we remember that the average yield for the United States 
is under thirty bushels, it shows the possibilities of this 
work. Land that will produce a hundred bushels of dry 
corn to the acre annually m rotation is worth five hundred 
dollars an acre. Do our farmer friends realize that their 



368 RURAL EDUCATION 

boys and girls through these contests directed by the 
schools are doubling their land values in many commun- 
ities? 

Tomato contests for the girls can be conducted in a sim- 
ilar manner to the corn contests. There is not always the 
market for tomatoes that there is for the. more staple 
products; hence the financial end is not so attractive. A 
state-wide canning contest is now being planned in several 
states, under the joint direction of the state and federal ex- 
tension divisions. This is an excellent project for the furture 
home-makers, as modern scientific methods of preserving 
vegetables and fruits will be learned. The use of harmful 
canning powders, and other unsanitary methods will be 
discontinued when girls learn the modern processes. 

The bread baking contests referred to in Chapter XXIV 
can be conducted as well in a rural school as anywhere 
else, as part of the bread at least is to be baked at home. 
It can all be baked there, if desired. In case the school is 
equipped with a hot lunch outfit, including a kerosene 
stove and oven, part of the contest work can be done in 
the school under the direct supervision of the teacher. 
Compressed yeast should be used at the school, however, 
as it would be difficult to keep a sponge at the proper tem- 
perature over night. One difficulty with the home work is 
that an over-anxious mother sometimes gets her "finger in 
the dough" when it should be purely the girl's affair. The 
local flour should be used, if possible. A country mill 
usually produces good flour. It is true to some extent 
that one must be used to the flour to get the best results, 
but get used to your local mill's product, and usually as 
good results can be obtained as from any other source. 
The author acknowledges that he has had to convert more 
than one home-maker and teacher to this doctrine, but 



OUTSIDE ACTIVITES 369 

what his power of persuasion failed to do, the local flour in 
a sack bearing the name of the favorite brand accomplished. 

Of the school activities carried to the community the 
first mentioned, the organization of farmers' clubs, will be 
discussed at length in the next chapter. 

Institutes held at the school may be participated in by 
the leading men and women of the community, as well as a 
specialist from an industrial high school or the county 
agent and field workers from the state extension division. 
A series of such meetings, planned jointly by the school 
and committee from the farmers' clubs, may be held from 
time to time during the year. The state Farmers' Insti- 
tutes' Corps is often available for such service, as that 
organization believes in carrying the gospel of good farming 
and home making to the farmers and home makers. Where 
a course is planned ahead for the year a well balanced list 
of topics can be discussed, and a good choice of speakers 
secured. In case there are no farmers' clubs there is all the 
more for the school to do. The institutes are often the 
forerunners of the club organization. 

Cow testing associations have been formed in several 
places with excellent results. The local creameries are 
always glad to co-operate in an enterprise of this kind. If 
a man cannot be employed to make the rounds and super- 
intend the testing, arrangements can likely be made to have 
it done at the creamery. In associated and consolidated 
schools, it is often done at the school laboratory. Many 
progressive farmers now have a milk scale, record sheets, 
and even a Babcock tester, so that the organization of an 
association should not be difficult. The advantages of 
such an organization are evident. It is hard to imagine 
anything less profitable about the place than a scrub cow. 
Testing and records will soon clear a farm of scrubs. 

24— 



370 RURAL EDUCATION 

The tuberculin test should be better known. Shortly 
after one of our classes in animal husbandry had com- 
pleted their demonstration lesson in tuberculosis and the 
application of the tuberculin test, a farmer requested that 
his entire herd be tested. Others followed, until one hun- 
dred and ten cattle were tested during one school year, all 
free of charge to the farmer. Some of those tested were 
condemned, and the results verified by the state authorities. 
It is now generally known that tuberculosis is very com- 
monly transmitted from cows to children, and even to 
adults, through milk. In associated schools, where an 
agricultural expert is available, tests can be made and the 
facts determined. Until laws compel owners to have all 
cows tested for tuberculosis, many farmers will not pay 
for the services of a veterinary. 

Vaccination of hogs for cholera is another important 
service that is being done frequently by the instructors in 
agriculture from industrial high schools. Occasionally this 
disease breaks out in violent form and causes tremendous 
losses. Again the schools can be of great service to the 
farmers. 

Demonstration work in fertilizers, pure seed, alfalfa, 
etc., can be successfully done on the farms near the school. 
Our agricultural department organized twelve so-called 
demonstration farms for keeping records and conducting 
various tests. These have since been turned over to the 
state Extension Division as a new "route" for their work. 
The farmers were glad of the opportunity to have their 
farms put on a business basis and have records kept. After 
a discussion of potato raising at an institute one progressive 
farmer tried out what he had learned and was delighted with 
the returns. His statement was so candid and unique 
it is worth giving here. He said: "My name is Yonson. 



OUTSIDE ACTIVTIES 



371 



I listen to your potato talk las' spring. I thought you toF 
one great big lie. I plant potatoes my way and get one 
hundred fifty bushels. I plant potatoes your way and I 
get three hundred and seventy six bushels on same ground. 
Now I plant your way." 

The necessity for pure seed corn and other grains is 
evident, if maximum crops are to be realized. Here again 
the school can act as leader through its teacher of agri- 




Mgure 138. The agriculturist and manual training teacher starting for the 
associated schools and demonstration farms in the school rig. 



culture. Farmers are naturally skeptical of "book meth- 
ods'' as they sometimes call the work of the high school 
agriculturist, but, when they once realize that these meth- 
ods will "deliver the goods," they are glad to co-operate. 
Testing for purity and germination may be done at the school, 
or by farmers themselves. Taking seed corn from the crib 
will no longer do on an up-to-date farm. Seed corn week 



372 RURAL EDUCATION 

is observed and the seed is carefully selected, properly stored, 
and accurately tested before planting. Hundred bushel 
yields must have the right start, and that is the seed. Other 
seed grain is beginning to receive the attention it should 
for record yields. 

Drainage projects have been successfully carried out 
by some schools. The lines were run, the "fall" determined, 
and, in some cases, the tile laid by the students from the 
school. A consolidated school, or rural schools associated 
with an industrial high school, can do this to good advan- 
tage to both farmer and pupils. Nearly every district has 
its drainage problems. The school can help to solve them. 

The county agent is an agricultural expert engaged 
jointly by the state and county in several states the last few 
years. He organizes farmers' clubs, attends institutes, 
gives talks and demonstrations at the schools, consults with 
farmers regarding crops and stock, and, in brief, is the county 
advisor in matters pertaining to agriculture. The plan 
has worked out well in most counties. An energetic, well 
qualified person can be of great service to the schools and 
the community in general. 



Figure 139. Class doing field work in animal husbandry. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER 

One of the reasons almost invariably given by young 
persons for wishing to leave the farm is the lack of social 
opportunities. Unfortunately, for the average rural com- 
munity this statement is justifiable. There is little or noth- 
ing to attend in the country, so the young men and women 
go to town to spend their evenings. This practice may, 
or may not, be bad in itself, depending upon the circum- 
stances, but it certainly is not conducive to a wholesome 
respect for country life. It would seem to be the duty of 
every rural community to provide some form of recre- 
ation and social intercourse, and the school ought naturally 
to be the neucleus of this social life. Where there is a 
rural church, that organization should co-operate with the 
school in solving this serious problem. 

The country often lacks efficient leadership. Here 
is the opportunity for the teacher. Some one must take 
the initiative, if anything is to be accomplished. A course 
in rural sociology should be required in the training of every 
teacher for the country schools. 

An illustration of what can be done when the rural 
school and the country church co-operate for the social wel- 
fare has come under the observation of the author during 
the last few years. In this case probably the leading spirit 
is the local pastor, although there are so many capable 
young men and women, it would be unfair to give the entire 
credit to any one individual. The former principal of the 
little semi-graded school and her assistant took great inter- 
est in industrial contests, and the school has successfully 
defended two silver cups, until they became the permanent 

373 



374 



RURAL EDUCATION 




Figure 140. A rural community center. The large modern church stands 
just beyond the schoolhouse. The pastor's residence and farm are at the 
right of the picture. The store and co-operative creamery complete the 
cluster. 

property of the school. The present principal is a young 
man of exceptional musical ability. Cantatas and oper- 
attas flourish. Another group of young persons became 
interested in music. An organization has developed into 
a seven or eight-piece orchestra seldom equaled in any small 
community, and their services are in demand far beyond the 
little home district. An effective debating society has done 
good work for years. The church is commodious, seating 
some five or six hundred persons. A spacious basement 
amply provides for the culinary entertainments. This 
institution alternates with the school as a meeting place 
for the entertainments which seldom are more than two 
weeks apart. A prosperous farmers' club looks after the 
agricultural interests during the year, and the directors 
of the co-operative creamery have as an annual summer 
event, a picnic, that attracts hundreds from outside the 
immediate neighborhood. All these and other activities 
occur regularly in a typical little rural center four or five 



SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER 375 

miles from the nearest village. Its score or more of young 
persons attending the central high school in the village are 
anxious to get home at night or for the week-end events. 
These young folk are not clamoring for city life, nor will 
they choose it when they consider their life work. Progres- 
sive contentment is a great virtue. 

Farmers' clubs have been organized in Minnesota by 
the hundreds during the last year or two, the ultimate goal 
being one in each school district. Several reasons might 
be given for having a live organization of this kind in each 
community, among them being the educational, social and 
financial benefits derived. 

The educational value of farmers' clubs should not be 
underestimated. Topics of importance to farmers and their 
wives are discussed, debates are given, and musical and 
rhetorical programs rendered. The question box is an inter- 
esting feature of many clubs. Another plan is to have each 
farmer who is a leader discuss how he gets results in his 
particular line. In the summer when they meet at the homes 
the men sometimes study a growing crop, such as alfalfa, 
by going into the field and examining the plants and soil, 
while the women discuss household affairs. 

The social side of the club is often regarded as the most 
valuable. Man is a gregarious animal and requires a certain 
amount of recreation and social enjoyment. The country 
folk are as much entitled to these pleasures as the city. 
Lack of initiative and organization have usually stood in 
the way. The farmer's club is meeting a long felt want 
in this respect. 

As a financial enterprise the club has many induce- 
ments. Pure bred cattle, horses, hogs, and other animals 
are brought into the community by individuals who have 
agreed upon the breeds that will be raised, or by the club 



376 RURAL EDUCATION 

itself. Farmers have learned that it pays to co-operate in 
these matters, and they apply the same principles to farm 
crops. If a buyer wants stock, corn, or potatoes, he must 
be able to get the same breeds and varieties in carload lots. 
The individual producer seldom has such quantities. If 
his neighbors have the same kinds, a better market is open 
to all. 

The club gives parliamentary practice to those who 
otherwise would get very little of such training. The 
farmer's club for the country should correspond to the 
commercial club of the village, and it should produce just 
as efficient leaders and business men. Some communities 
already regard the club as vital to their welfare. 

Clubs are organized by electing the usual officers — a 
president, vice president, secretary and treasurer. Several 
committees are desirable, as the program committee, mem- 
bership, refreshment committee, etc. By-laws are drawn 
up and adopted. All this work is excellent training for the 
young. It is understood that farmers' clubs should be 
family affairs. That is, the entire family should be mem- 
bers, and attend. They should never be organized for the 
men only. Once a week during the winter and once in 
two weeks in the spring and fall will not be found too often 
for a live club to meet. A program of some kind should 
always be part of the meeting. If there is still time, games 
may be played before or after the refreshments. The 
lunches ought not to be elaborate. It can readily be seen 
that there is hardly any limit to the activities of such an 
organization. Speakers can be obtained from the nearest 
high schools and from the general state extension division. 

Lyceum courses are not uncommon now in rural com- 
munities. It is true, it would be difficult to maintain such 
a course in a common one-room school, but the modern 



SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER 



377 




Figure 141. Making the school a social center. One of the lyceum numbers. 



consolidated school ought to have a lyceum course. One 
hundred season tickets at one dollar and a half, besides 
what would be taken in at the door for each attraction, 
would support a fairly good course of four or five numbers. 
The University of Minnesota, through its general exten- 
sion division, has entered the lyceum field to furnish courses 
at cost and to a degree has revolutionized both the cost 
and the quality of lyceum attractions. 

A circulating library can easily be managed either by 
farmers' clubs or the schools. Under the associated school 
plan the books from the general library of the central high 
school can be circulated from school to school in the country 
and finally returned to the central library. A consolidated 
school could have a similar plan, or several rural schools 
might form a circulating library. The advantages of such 



378 RURAL EDUCATION 

a plan are obvious. Each school gets the benefit of all the 
books and magazines. In order to be a success, the teach- 
ers must first of all be enthusiastic over the plan. The 
books must be checked up carefully and circulated promptly 
from school to school. The advantage of a local circulating 
iibrary over a state library is that the local books can be 
had free of charge, each district in the circuit purchasing a 
number of new books each year. In one associated dis- 
trict, the manual training department of the central school 
made neat oak cases to hold about thirty-five or forty 
books. They could be locked up and transferred with the 
books to the next school. 

The community hall, either in connection with the 
school or as a separate building, is probably the next step 
in community welfare. This may be in a small village or 
out in the. open country, depending, upon local conditions, 
A reading room with books and magazines, a rest room, 
a larger room with games such as checkers, dominoes, 
chess, and others, should be provided. If possible, there 
ought also to be a larger room for athletics, basketball, 
indoor baseball, etc. The same building would serve for 
the lyceum course and home talent plays. Such things may 
have been visionary in the past; they are to be realities in 
the very near future. 

Mr. E. M. Phillips in his Manual for Consolidated 
Schools in Minnesota emphasizes the necessity of making 
the school the social center for the community. He says, 
"Rural communities are in need everywhere of such organi- 
zations as will give expression to all the varied human 
interests which they hold in common — religious, educational, 
aesthetic, social, economic. 

The rural school holds a splendid strategic position with 
reference to every one of these interests. It is intrenched 



SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER 379 

in the heart of every loyal American as identified with our 
national achievements. It assures our future as a great 
people consecrated to the cause of freedom, truth and 
righteousness among men. What is more natural than to 
make use of this existing institution as an agency to en- 
courage those organizations which may embody the lofty 
ideals to be found in some degree in every community? 

Bring only some of the latent organizing possibilities 
of the country-side into dynamic combinations of people 
bent upon realizing themselves through frequent meeting, 
exchange of experiences and agreement of purpose, and 
the desirability of country life would gradually and surely 
assert itself. The school stands ready-made for this serv- 
ice. School boards, principals and teachers may well 
co-operate in their efforts to accomplish or stimulate such 
organization of all rural interests. If a beginning is made, 
the logical sequence will reveal itself. 

Contests, debates, musical training through school 
orchestral and band organizations, literary societies, agri- 
cultural clubs, sewing and cooking clubs — all these and 
others are being employed in the different schools with ex- 
cellent success as a means of helping children to realize 
their aspirations. 

A warning will not be out of place. Use any or all of 
these agencies for the accomplishment of something de- 
finite and educative, and so regulate the situation that a 
logical balance is at all times preserved between regular 
school requirements and these affiliated activities." 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 

The "Minnesota Plan," as the Putnam Act of 1909 is 
sometimes called, provides for the association of rural 
schools with a central school for the purpose of extending 
the influence of the central school to the rural schools, and 
for the teaching of agriculture and other industrial sub- 
jects in these schools. When the law was first passed, the 
state High School Board was authorized to designate ten 
schools to maintain departments of agriculture, manual 
training and home economics. This plan was at first inde- 
pendent of association of rural schools, but the law has 
since been revised so that any high, graded, or consoli- 
dated rural school that measures up to the requirements 
laid down by the High School Board, may draw state aid 
under the Putnam Act, provided two or more rural schools 
become associated with such Central School. 

Special teachers are required by law in the departments 
of agriculture, manual training, and home economics, of 
all schools under the Putnam Act. The instructors in 
agriculture and home economics must be college graduates 
in those subjects and the manual training instructors must 
hold a special certificate from the State Department of 
Education. The demand for such teachers has exceeded 
the supply. So rapidly have industrial subjects been intro- 
duced into the schools of many states. This demand has 
tended to increase the salaries not only of the special 
teachers but also those of other teachers in the high school 
and grades. The demand for trained teachers in the 
associated rural schools has raised salaries in those districts, 

380 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 381 

so that few pay less than fifty dollars a month and sixty 
or sixty-five dollars is not uncommon wages. 

Instruction in the industrial subjects is free to all resi- 
dents of the associated territory. There is nothing in the 
law to prevent the central district from charging for regular 
academic work in the upper grades or for textbooks in any 
subject, but to do so is not a common practice. Tuition 
may be charged for all students outside the associated dis- 
trict who take industrial work above the sixth grade, at 
the rate of one and a half dollars a month in the seventh 
and eighth grades, and not to exceed two and one half dol- 
lars a month in the high school department. If only one 
industrial subject is taken by the student, a charge of not 
more than two dollars can be made. A very interesting 
feature of the tuition law is that provision is made for the 
individual to attend school free of charge, the tuition being 
paid by the state. This, naturally, is an advantage to the 
individual. 

Rural schools may become associated with a Central 
School by petition of twenty-five per cent of its freeholders. 
Ten days posted notice must be given before the election. 
All legal school voters, both men and women, may vote, 
and a majority of the votes cast are necessary to effect 
association. Any number of rural schools may become as- 
sociated with the Central School. The board of education 
of the Central School and the State Board of Education 
must approve the action of the rural schools' voting to 
associate before they are legally associated. 

The associated school board consists of the three mem- 
bers from each rural school associated and the six members 
of the central district, provided this is an independent 
district. This general board meets annually on the first 
Monday in August to audit the accounts and expenditures 



382 RURAL EDUCATION 

for the past year, and to appoint a managing board for the 
ensuing year. A tax may be voted by the rural associated 
district for building purposes, and not more than two mills 
for maintenance. The managing board is composed of one 
member from each associated district and the entire board 
of the central district. This board holds regular meetings from 
time to time during the year and has the management of 
the associated district. The officers of the Central School 
are by law the officers of the associated board. 

Relationship and obligations between the associated 
and central districts may be terminated at any annual 
school meeting by a majority vote of all the associated 
school districts, provided at least one year's notice of the 
intention to vote on the question is given the central district. 
Such an arrangement makes it possible for any district 
that is not satisfied with its conditions under association to 
withdraw within a reasonable length of time. 

State aid to the amount of $200 per associated district 
is given to the Central School. Each rural associated dis- 
trict receives $50 aid. This aid is given only on the rec- 
ommendation of the superintendent of the Central School 
as well as that of the county superintendent. 

In addition the central school receives $1,000 for agri- 
culture, $600 for home economics, $600 for manual train- 
ing, and $600 for commercial courses. 

The authority of the superintendent of the Central 
School is the same for the associated schools as he exercises 
over the central district. By law "he shall prepare for the 
associated rural schools a suitable course of study, em- 
bodying training and instruction in agriculture and indus- 
trial training and such subjects as are related to farm life 
and can be successfully taught in rural schools." This 
authority and supervision, with the hearty co-operation 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 383 

of the county superintendent, can be made of permanent 
benefit to the rural schools. 

Land to the extent of at least five acres for demonstra- 
tion and experimental purposes may be provided within 
two miles of the Central School. The associated board 
may at its discretion provide land for experimental work in 
each of the associated schools. In Minnesota this land 
was used largely for school gardens at first, but it was soon 
found to be better policy to have the gardens at home under 
supervision of the agricultural department, where the 
children could take care of them during the summer. 

The Associated Schools at Cokato, Minnesota, have 
become quite well known during the last half dozen years. 
The splendid work done by Superintendent Hargrave and 
his corps of teachers prepared the way, but to the inexhaust- 
ible energy and untiring effort of Superintendent John 
Munroe is due the credit of the organization of the large 
territory. The Cokato Associated District is about six 
miles wide and fifteen miles long and comprises twelve 
rural districts besides the central district at the village of 
Cokato. Situated in about the middle of this large territory 
of some eighty odd square miles is the Central High School, 
while at intervals of from two to three miles apart are the 
associated rural schools. This district has a valuation of 
over one million dollars, and has approximately one thou- 
sand students. 

The associated rural school is to be distinguished from 
the consolidated school in that the associated district does not 
lose its identity, but merely affiliates itself with the central 
school for the purpose of getting the benefits of the agricul- 
tural and industrial work done in the school, as well as 
such as can be successfully taught in the rural schools under 
the supervision of the superintendent and special instructors. 



384 RURAL EDUCATION 

Each rural district maintains its own school, but votes 
a tax of not less than two mills toward the industrial and 
extension work done in the associated districts, and can send 
its students to the central school free of charge. Since 
the work done at the Cokato School is typical of the Minne- 
sota plan, a brief discussion of some of the school activities 
is given. 

The Central School is now organized on the six-three 
and three plan; that is, six grades, a junior high school of 
three years, and a senior high school of three years. In 
addition to the ordinary academic work there are four 
special departments — agriculture, manual training, domes- 
tic economy, and a normal training department for the 
training of rural teachers. A "short course" is also offered 
during the winter months for young men and women who 
have not had the advantages of high school. This course 
has been popular from the start with an enrollment of 
nearly a hundred at first and an average of more than fifty 
for the six years of its existence. There was such a demand 
for the work of this course that a four-year short course 
was gradually formed, and two classes have now been 
graduated from this course. These graduates have averaged 
about twenty-three years of age, and have practically all 
gone back to the farms for their life work. That the work 
of the departments may be perfectly clear, a paragraph 
is given to each. 

The agricultural department offers a brief course in 
the Junior High School. This course is required of all 
students, and offers one term of three months in farm crops 
in the eighth year, and one term of animal husbandry in 
the ninth year. In the Senior High School a full agricul- 
tural course of three years is offered for those who desire 
to elect that work. A perusal of the course will show 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 385 

agronomy, or farm crops, in the first year, or tenth grade. 
Animal husbandry is offered for the entire year of the elev- 
enth grade. General chemistry, made as practical as pos- 
sible for two terms, is followed by a term of study on soils. 
In the senior year the student gets two terms of agri- 
cultural engineering and one of farm management, in addi- 
tion to building plans, cement, and other practical work 




Figure 142. An exhibit made by the "short course" students at the central 
school of an associated district. These boys are all from the farms. 

for the farm. The department has a large room especially 
fitted up for laboratory work in agriculture, and a classroom. 
A general laboratory supplies the needs of the other sciences. 
The manual training department comprises two rooms 
in the high school building and a special building for forg- 
ing, farm mechanics, and cement. The large shop for wood 
work will accommodate thirty to forty students and is equip- 
ped with full men's sized benches made in the department. 
A saw, run by motor power, is the only machinery, as the 
object is to teach work as it is done on the farm as nearly 
as possible. Students are taught to take care of the tools 
and to keep them sharp. The mechanical drawing room 
joins the wood working shop and is equipped with homemade 
drawing tables. The forge building was erected by the asso- 
ciated board at the expense of the farming community, 

25— 



386 



RURAL EDUCATION 



It is well equipped for ordinary work. Students are encour- 
aged to purchase forges for the farms and to make use of 
them. The course in cement teaches the proper mixtures 
for ordinary use. Building blocks, posts, sidewalk blocks, 




Figure 143. Associated school blacksmith shop. 

cement floors, troughs, etc. are made and taught. Work 
in the manual training department is required in the grades 
and Junior High School, and elective in the Senior High 
School. The fifth and sixth grades have two seventy-five 
minute periods a week, and the eighth and ninth have that 
number of minutes daily. The seventh grade has a term 
of general industrial work, as basketry, clay modeling, 
camp cookery, sewing on buttons, mending, etc. This 
work is not done in the manual training department. Only 
boys take the regular work in manual training, as the girls 
of these grades have work in home economics. 

The department of home economics is well equipped 
and occupies four rooms — sewing, domestic science labora- 
tory, dining room, and pantry. Over one hundred and 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 



387 



fifty girls take work in this department annually, beginning 
in the fifth grade. As in manual training, the work is re- 
quired in the grades and Junior High School, and elective 
in the Senior High School. The girls of the fifth and sixth 
grades have sewing twice a week. In the seventh grade 
both girls and boys are required to take some practical 
work in cooking and sewing. Domestic science is given 
daily in the eighth, with three double periods a week devoted 
to laboratory work. A course in canning is offered in the 




Figure 144. The sewing room at the central school of an associated district 

fall, and supplies for the use of the department are put up. 
Garment making is done in the last year of the Junior High 
School, or ninth grade. The sewing room is large and equip- 
ped with tables for drafting and cutting, and with sewing 
machines. The cooking laboratory accommodates twenty- 
eight students in a division, and is well provided with 
unilateral light. The pantry has been built especially for 
the department and contains home made sanitary, movable 
bins, and other conveniences. The dining room is well 



388 RURAL EDUCATION 

arranged and contains a built-in china closet. The whole 
department is tinted in harmonious colors such as would be 
suitable for the home. A course in serving is given, and 
during the winter months the table is set regularly three 
times a week and half a dozen persons are served for luncheon 
or dinners. Tickets are sold for ten cents each for the 
luncheons and fifteen cents for the dinners. Each 
student in turn must plan the menu, purchase the materials, 
cook the meal, serve and act as hostess. Hot lunches are 
served daily from the time it is too cold to enjoy a picnic 
lunch on the lawn in the fall until the warm weather of 
spring arrives. From seventy-five to one hundred are 
served each noon. The students take turns in bringing 
the supplies and they are cooked by students from the nor- 
mal training department who take turns in preparing the 
warm dishes and serving them, under the direction of the 
supervisor of the home economics department. The recipes 
given in Chapter XIX have all been prepared and served 
with entire success. Occasionally we find parents who 
pretend to think the serving of something warm with the 
cold lunch a fad, but usually such do not care to send the 
little food needed to carry on this work. On the whole 
the students think very highly of the plan. A three-year 
course in home economics is offered in the Senior High School. 
The subjects given may be seen under the courses of study. 
The teachers' training department has for its object 
the preparation of teachers for the rural schools, but par- 
ticularly for the schools of the associated district. A 
three-year course is offered, but the senior year only is given 
in the training department. No students are allowed 
to take the work until they are seniors in the high school, 
and many take the course as post-graduate work, that is, 
the last year of the course as offered in the normal depart- 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 389 

ment. State aid to" the extent of twelve hundred dollars is 
earned by all training departments in Minnesota. This, 
together with special inspection for this department, should 
insure high grade work. All students who take the normal 
training course in the senior year of high school or as post- 
graduate work, receive a first grade state certificate. This 
is good only in rural schools. 

An ungraded room, or rural school, has been operated 
in connection with the training department. Twenty-two 
students were admitted the first year. These were selected 
from the regular grade classes, about half living in the 
country and half in town. The aim is to get an average 
school — not only backward students, not the brightest 
students. The program followed is the one suggested for 
three divisions in Chapter VIII, and the course of study 
is that given in this book under academic and industrial 
work. The ungraded room was a great success from the 
start, due, largely, to the hearty co-operation given, and the 
splendid results obtained by the supervisor of the depart- 
ment, Miss Mary A. Conant. Not once did we have a com- 
plaint from the parents that the children were not doing as 
well as in the grades. On the other hand, several requests 
that children might be allowed to take the work in this 
room were received. The students taking the training 
course do most of their teaching in this room under the 
direction of the training teacher. Before students are 
graduated and recommended for certificates they must 
have entire charge of the room for a week or more at a time. 

The "short course" has been one of the best features of 
association at Cokato. These winter courses have been 
planned to meet the needs of the young men and women on 
the farms or in town who cannot avail themselves of the 
full high school course. There are but two entrance re- 



390 RURAL EDUCATION 

quirements for this course — maturity and perseverance. 

Some students have been enrolled who did not know the 

language when they began. No student under sixteen 

years of age is eligible to the short courses. The question 

is sometimes raised whether the short courses do not draw 

students from the regular courses and thus encourage 

them to attend school only three months instead of nine 

months. Such has certainly not been the case at Cokato, 

as most of the students are those who have left the country 

schools years before, and would never attend the regular 

high school if it were not for the special courses. Indeed 

several persons have taken the short course, have "found" 

themselves, and have taken the regular high school courses. 

The four-year course of study for the "Short Course" 

follows : 

COURSE OF STUDY 

FIRST DIVISION SECOND DIVISION 

First Year Third Year 

English, 5 English, 5 

Woodwork, 5 I,™ 11 wo ^ 5 . . r 

Farm crops 5 ^ ons ana - fertilization, 5 

Practical Arithmetic, 5 Farm management, 5 

Plain cooking, 10 Drainage, 5 

Poultry, 5 £ ew !^ g ' 1( ? r 

Writing and spelling, 5 Bookkeeping, 5 

Business law, 5 

Second Year Fourth Year 

English, 5 English, 5 

Woodwork, 5 Cement and building, 5 

Animal husbandry, 5 Corn culture. 5 

Farm Accounts, 5 Farm mechanics, 5 

Home Accounts, 5 Domestic art, 10 

Domestic science, 10 Political economy, 5 

Commercial geography, 5 Civics, 5 

Business writing, spelling, rhetoricals and debate required at the 
general period throughout the course. 

Notes on the Course 

It will be noticed that the course is divided into two divisions for 
economy in handling the classes. The plan is to alternate the work 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 391 

of the first and second years, as well as that of the third and fourth 
years, offering half of the subjects of a division one year and the other 
half the next. That is, those who come in for the first time this year 
will take their work with the second year students, and the two will 
constitute the first division classes. In the same way the two classes 
of the second division will be combined. This combination will insure 
large classes, a better course can be offered, and only about one half 
the teaching force is required. The numerals indicate the equivalent 
of single periods per week. Each student working for credit should 
elect twenty units per week, as this is the basis required for graduation. 
The first two years of English are required of all students. The rest 
of the work is elective except the general period. 

A women's class has been organized to meet once or 
twice a week for about two hours in the afternoon during 
the winter months. Drafting of patterns, dressmaking, 
home accounts, food study, home sanitation, and the dem- 
onstration of new recipes are among the topics studied. 
Most of the work has been done by actual demonstration 
and lectures rather than by textbooks. The women were 
encouraged to draw reference books from the library and 
to get government and station bulletins on the topics under 
consideration. A great deal of interest has been shown in 
these meetings. Women from the country as well as 
from town have participated. The great majority of those 
attending these courses are actual home makers, busy but 
progressive, who think it worth while to keep abreast of 
the times in things that have developed since they were 
in school. There is no reason why similar work should 
not be conducted in the rural schools, especially when 
these schools are associated with some central high school 
where help from the special instructors can be obtained or 
where there is a rural consolidated school. 

The reorganization of the graded system has undoubt- 
edly resulted in more efficient work, although it is still too 
, early to judge permanent results, as the plan has been in 
operation but two years. The usual twelve years' work 
are maintained in the Central School, but, instead of the 



392 RURAL EDUCATION 

traditional plan of eight and four years, there are four units 
equal in time. The central idea of the first three years, or 
Primary Division, is to guide the pupil in such a manner 
that he may become an independent reader, and to teach 
him to express his thoughts clearly. The first purpose 
can'be accomplished only by emphasis of the mechanical 
side of reading, or phonics, and the reading of twenty or 
thirty suitable books a year, and the second is taught by 
oral and written language, dramatization, and industrial 
work. In the Second Division, or grades four, five and six, 
the fundamentals of all the so-called common branches, 
including industrial work, are taught. Every teacher, at 
least, must realize that it is possible to do much more work 
than is usually done in the eight years of the grades. 
Everything ordinarily done in the grade school can be done 
in six years, and done more effectively and with fewer 
"home tasks," under an environment that will stimulate 
the best energy of both teacher and pupil. Like the steam 
engine, only a small per cent of the energy of the average 
schoolroom is useful work. This condition of our public 
school system can and will be remedied. As this phase of 
school work has been discussed more in detail in previous 
chapters, a passing reference will suffice here. 

The Junior High School is the third division, and is 
conducted on a plan whereby the pupils of the seventh, 
eighth and ninth grades form one unit of the school organi- 
zation. The departmental plan is followed. That .is, in- 
stead of having one teacher for each -grade, there is a group 
of teachers for the entire unit. Each teacher is especially 
well qualified to teach one or more subjects, as history and 
arithmetic, English and penmanship, etc. The students 
have four or five different instructors during the year, at 
least two of whom are men. The instructors of the in- 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 393 

dustrial departments have classes from both Junior and 
Senior High Schools. It would seem that the strongest 
argument in favor of the Junior High School is that in view 
of the fact that the great majority of students never go 
beyond the grades, the work of the upper grades should be 
made more practical for them. In other words the course 
should be made, as far as possible, a preparation for life 
rather than for high school. This doctrine seems iconi- 
clastic to some, probably because we are only just begin- 
ning to get away from the idea that the high school should 
be primarily a preparation for college. Experience has 
shown that many students who would drop out of school 
at the end of the eighth year will remain for the ninth, 
when the work of that year is part of a definite course. 
Students who do not expect to complete the regular four 
year high school course are reluctant about starting with 
algebra or Latin. The experience of almost every high 
school is that many more drop out during the freshman 
year than during any other year. Our experience since the 
reorganization has been that the enrollment of the ninth 
grade has increased about fifty per cent. Not only prac- 
tically all the eighth grade of the central school finish 
the ninth, but many pupils from the associated rural schools 
come in to finish the Junior High School. The results so 
far have been gratifying indeed, and the effect upon the 
student seems to have been an incentive to finish the Senior 
High School also, rather than to be content with a diploma 
from the Junior High School. Those who do quit school 
have a much more practical course than under the old 
arrangement. 

The tabulation shows the course of study for the three 
years' work. A general assembly period of forty minutes 
daily for chorus, rhetoricals, and other exercises is re- 



394 RURAL EDUCATION 

quired of all students. The only elective subject in the 
Junior High School is Swedish. This language is offered 
because a very large percentage of the pupils are of that 
nationality. It is taught by the direct method and no English 
is used during the recitation. The usual high school course in 
Swedish is offered in the seventh and eighth years, the 
grammar being given the last semester instead of the first. 
Those who do not elect Swedish are required to take a 
course in English classics in addition to the regular course 
in English which all take. 

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL COURSE 

Note: Where no figure follows the study one term of three months is given. 

First year or seventh grade: English 3, industrial work, elementary science, 
Swedish 3 or English classics 3, geography, commercial geography, writing, spelling, 
music, arithmetic. 

Second year or eighth grade: English 3, cooking 3 or manual training 3, 
Swedish 3 or English classics 3, accounts, general history, general agriculture, 
drawing. 

Third year or ninth grade: _ English 2, grammar, arithmetic 2, history 2, 
civics, sewing 3 or manual training 3, general agriculture, physiology. 

The Senior High School constitutes the last unit and 
consists of the tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades. In this 
division the work is largely elective. Six courses are of- 
fered, and there is at least one elective each year in each 
course. The work of the Junior High School is not elec- 
tive, because it consists chiefly of subjects that are funda- 
mental and will be useful whatever the vocation of the 
individual may be, and because students are not old enough 
to intelligently elect a course at that time. As the tabu- 
lation gives the subjects offered in each year of the six 
courses, further discussion is unnecessary. 

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL COURSES 

Note: Where no figure follows the study one term of three months is given. 

College Preparatory — Tenth Grade: English 3, elementary algebra 3, zool- 
ogy 2, botany, elect one 3. Eleventh grade: English 3, plane geometry 3, modern 
history 3, elect one 3. Twelfth grade: English 3, physics or chemistry 3, elect two 6. 

Normal — Tenth grade: English 3, elementary algebra 3 or plane geometry 
3, domestic science 3, agriculture, zoology 2, botany. Eleventh grade: English 
3, modern or ancient history 3, chemistry 2, analysis of foods 1 or physics 3, sew- 
ing 3, agriculture. Twelfth grade: English (including grammar) 3, arithmetic, 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 395 



^-OgrL,,-. 

weeks, history, industrial work, manual training 6 weeks, sewing-cooking 6 weeks, 
school organization, observation and practice teaching 3. 

Agriculture — Tenth grade: English 3, zoology 2, botany, agronomy 3, prac- 
ticums, manual training 3. Eleventh grade: English 3, animal husbandry 3, 
practicums, chemistry 2, soils, elect one 3. Twelfth grade: English 3, agricul- 
tural engineering 2, farm management, practicums, iron work 2, cement, mechan- 
ical drawing, elect one 2. 

Manual Training — Tenth grade: English 3, woodwork 3, mechanical drawing 
3, elect one 3. Eleventh grade: English 3, woodwork 2, shop accounts, mechan- 
ical drawing 3, elect one 3. Twelfth grade: English 3, iron work 2, cement, mechan- 
ical drawing 3, shop practice 3. 

Home Economics — Tenth grade: English 3, home accounts, vegetable gar- 
dening, poultry, domestic science 3, elect one 3. Eleventh grade: English 3, 
elect one 3, dressmaking 2, domestic art, chemistry 2, analysis of foods. Twelfth 
grade: English 3, house plans, sanitation, home decoration, food study and house- 
hold management, physiology and home nursing, textiles and purchasing supplies, 
elect one 3. 

Commercial — Tenth grade: English 3, accounts, bookkeeping 2, German 3, 
elect one 3. Eleventh grade: English 3. German 3, shorthand, typewriting, 
commercial writing, elect one 3. Twelfth grade: English 3, Swedish 3, commer- 
cial spelling, commercial geography, commercial arithmetic, political economy, 
commercial law, office practice, shorthand and typewriting 3. 

The advantages of association to the rural communities 
themselves are many. Thus far we have considered only 
the work at the Central School, all of which is free to the 
pupils from the associated districts. That a large number 
from the farms take advantage of these opportunities is 
shown by the present enrollment. The records show that 
64.3% of the Junior High School students, and 71.4% of 
the Senior High School students live on farms. The latter 
figures include nearly forty "short course" students, the 
majority of whom are from the rural districts. The per- 
centages from the farm of each grade make an interesting 
study. The "Short Course" leads, naturally, with 88%. 
The others are as follows: Twelfth grade, 53%; eleventh 
grade, 67%; tenth grade, 66%; ninth grade, 70%; eighth 
grade, 59%; seventh grade, 30%. In actual numbers 
there are nearly three times as many students in the high 
school departments as there were before association was 
effected, and the percentage from the country has increased 
in about the same proportion. The large percentage from 
the country in the ninth grade justifies the contention that 
the Junior High School plan holds students in school longer 



396 RURAL EDUCATION 

than the ordinary organization of the grades. In numbers 
also the ninth grade is the largest in the history of the school, 
having at present exactly the same number as in the eleventh 
and twelfth grades combined. 

Land values in the associated districts have greatly 
increased and no one will deny that the activities of the 
schools and allied organizations have been instrumental in 
no small way in bringing this about. How? By demon- 
stration that three or four times the state average yield 
of corn is entirely possible on every farm by proper selec- 
tion and management; by teaching better methods of 
farming; by encouraging farmers to keep records; by showing 
the value of rotation of crops; by assisting in drainage; and 
by preaching to the community the possibilities of the farm 
and the advantages of country life. The work of the farmers' 
clubs has been discussed elsewhere. These were organized 
by the school, and, although entirely capable of managing 
their own organizations, they still look to and receive aid 
from both the rural and central schools. 

The school farm has probably been about as successful 
and as unsuccessful as many other school farms. In many 
ways it has been beneficial. For example, a small orchard 
of about two acres has been set out to demonstrate that 
many varieties of orchard fruits are adapted to the com- 
munity. 

It used to be thought that Minnesota could not grow 
apples, and yet no other state has produced a variety that 
can equal the flavor of the Wealthy. Small fruit has been 
given attention on the school farm. Corn breeding, demon- 
strations with grains and grasses, fertilizer tests, and a three- 
year rotation plan are among the worthy projects of the 
ten acres used for that purpose. There has been criticism 
of the farm — some just and some unjust, as is usually the 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 397 

case. The most serious mistake that has been made is in 
the operating expenses. A tract of valuable land worth 
one hundred and fifty dollars an acre should be made to 
pay at least all expenses when the supervision is by the 
specialist in agriculture and whose time is paid for by the 
school. The farmers have objected to the unprofitableness 
of the farm, and, I think, rightly. On the other hand, it 
must not be expected that the demonstration plot of land 
is merely to show a profit. That side of the question is the 
other extreme. Ten acres of corn could be made to pay 
a fine profit each year, but it would not show any more 
than the boys' corn contests are already showing. In my 
judgment the school farm should do two things — act as the 
outdoor laboratory for the classes in agriculture, and dem- 
onstrate a rotation plan managed to show a profit. That is, 
ten acres could be divided about equally one half to be used 
for small demonstration plots of grains, grasses, cultivated 
crops, small fruits and orchards; the other half in larger 
tracts for permanent rotation of grain grasses and cultivated 
crops. The first part is not expected to show a profit, 
any more than the physics or chemistry laboratories are 
expected to show a profit. In fact a hundred dollars or 
two spent on this outdoor laboratory might be advisable. 
But the other part should be run for profit, records kept 
of all operating expenses, everything done on a business 
basis, tools cared for, the land kept free from weeds, and 
products harvested and marketed in a model way. True, 
the cost of production will be greater per acre for a small 
tract like this, but it can be made to pay. Young agricul- 
turists too often feel their services are too valuable to spend 
much time on the school plots. This is a mistaken notion. 
The farmer is skeptical until shown. The man who is not 
afraid to put in ten hours or more a day on the school farm 



398 RURAL EDUCATION 

in the summer can make it pay and will not only earn his 
salary, but the confidence and good will of the farmers. 
Student labor in planting and harvesting while school is 
in session is very necessary for its training, and will save 
considerable expense. I believe in the school farm and also 
in the agriculturist's not being ashamed to be a farmer. 
Happily many of them are not, but some give that impres- 
sion, and they always injure the cause for which they are 
working. 

Institutes have been held at the associated schools several 
times during the year. On several occasions the schedule 
has been arranged to go to the schools in rotation each 
evening until the entire district had been covered. Often 
two meetings an evening are held. Three or four speakers 
from the Central School take part, half going to one school 
and half to the other. Then two speakers exchange. In 
this way at least three persons would take part in each pro- 
gram. A machine and good roads make the exchange 
possible in a very short time. From one hundred to one 
hundred and fifty are common audiences at these meet- 
ings. Topics of general interest to the community are dis- 
cussed. At least one woman of the faculty takes part in 
the program. Often speakers from the University Exten- 
sion Division assist. 

The uniform course of study in the associated rural 
schools is practically the work discussed in chapters seven to 
twenty-five inclusive of this book. The schools are super- 
vised by the Central School as well as by the county super- 
intendent. The special teachers from the industrial de- 
partments visit the associated schools from time to time and 
give demonstrations in their particular branches, as well as 
supervise the industrial work. The rural course of study 
articulates directly with the Junior High School of the 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 



399 



central district, so that no time need be wasted in getting 
used to high school, as so often happens. 

A general meeting of the teachers of the associated 
districts is held about once a month on Saturday at the 
Central School. An all day session beginning at nine thirty 
and closing about three thirty is devoted to discussions of 
the problems of the rural schools. The work in home 
economics is conducted by the supervisor of that depart- 
ment in the Central School. Agricultural and manual 
training discussions are stimulated by the instructors of 




Figure 145. The regular monthly teachers' meeting for the associated schools. 
A demonstration of the hot lunch to teachers and board members. The 
homemade bookcase for the circulating library can be seen in the corner. 

those departments, while the normal training teacher and the 
superintendent assist in a more general way. At first these 
meetings were called by the superintendent of the asso- 
ciated schools, but gradually they have been turned over 
to the teachers themselves, until they now have a per- 
manent organization, and a program committee to select 
the topics for discussion. Several of their own number 
are on the program at each meeting, as well as teachers 
from the Central School. Occasionally an outsider is 



400 



RURAL EDUCATION 



asked to speak. Visiting teachers are always welcome and 
often attend. Academic subjects as well as industrial 
work are discussed, and musical numbers form the enter- 
tainment part of the program, while much valuable help 
is given the teachers by visits to the school by the super- 
intendent and special teachers. Perhaps the most direct 
benefit to the rural schools is the course of study and the 
teachers' meetings. The Associated Board, realizing this, 
pays for the transportation of the teachers, thus encourag- 
ing them to attend. Since that time it is seldom that 
one of the fifteen rural teachers is absent from a meeting. 
Luncheon is served at noon in the dining room of the 
Home Economics Department. 

Industrial supplies are furnished each associated school 
to the extent of fifteen dollars' worth annually. These 
supplies include weaving materials, clay for modeling, 
raffia and rattan for mats and basketry, thin lumber for 
manual training, and materials for the work in sewing. 



::..;'"" M: ■ 


r « 


.".."'. : .■ •■"'• 










\ i { - * 




:..:',i<"' "' 








iijj&a 






JESSES' 


-"'■ '. 







Figure 146. Preparing industrial material for the rural associated schools. 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 401 

Each school has been furnished a two-burner kerosene oil 
stove and oven and about a dozen and a half cooking uten- 
sils for the hot lunches served at noon. About half of the 
schools have benches and tools for manual training. The 
rest will be supplied as fast as they desire to install this 
work. Rope for splicing and learning to tie knots has 
been furnished and instruction given by the instructor 
from the Central School. A collection of three dozen 
bottles of weed, grain, and grass seeds in a case has been 
made for each school, to be used as a guide in taking up 
similar work in the associated schools. 

Contest work has already been mentioned. The Asso- 
ciated Board voted $125 a year for this work to be used 
at the discretion of the superintendent. Fifty dollars of 
this is used in prizes for the annual acre yield corn contests 
and seventy-five dollars for the associated school exhibits 
held each spring at the Central School. The highest ten 
in the corn contest just closed averaged over eighty bushels 
to the acre, the highest being one hundred sixteen bushels 
and five pounds of shelled corn, as determined by the state 
officials for this work, and the lowest, sixty bushels and 
twenty-four pounds. The average yield at a cent a pound, 
which these boys were offered at husking time by seed 
men, will pay big interest on five hundred dollar land, 
after paying all operating expenses. If ten boys, all of 
whom are under high school age, can be taught to increase 
production along one line to such an extent, what can a 
whole community accomplish, if they become interested 
in better farming? This is a theoretical problem that it 
would pay every school district to make practical. 

The annual exhibit of the associated schools includes all 
phases of school work, academic as well as industrial. 
Great interest has been shown by pupils and teachers 

26 — 



402 RURAL EDUCATION 

alike. In addition to the individual and school prizes, a 
silver cup trophy is offered, which becomes the permanent 
property of any school winning it for two successive years. 
The premium list for the 1915 spring exhibit follows: 

PREMIUM LIST FOR CONTEST IN ASSOCIATED SCHOOLS, 
SPRING OF 1915 

PENMANSHIP 

1. Best individual specimen of writing, includ- 

ing movement exercises, small letters, cap- 
itals, figures, and words 75 .50 .25 

2. Best general display from all grades 75 .50 .25 

GEOGRAPHY 

1. Best relief map of Minnesota 75 .50 .25 

2. Best relief map of any continent 75 .50 .25 

3. Best drawn map, any kind 75 .50 .25 

LANGUAGE 

1. Best booklet on any one of the following 

topics: Corn, Noxious Weeds, Vegetable 
Garden, Strawberries, Apples, Poultry for 
Pleasure and Profit, Farm Animals, Bee 
Culture, Home Sanitation, The Typhoid 
Fly 75 .50 .25 

2. Best general display from all grades 75 .50 .25 

ARITHMETIC 

1. Best general display from all grades 75 .50 .25 

ELEMENTARY INDUSTRIAL WORK 

1. Best woven mat, yarn or cloth 75 .50 .25 

2. Best hammock 75 .50 .25 

3. Best napkin ring 75 .50 .25 

4. Best raffia or reed mat 75 .50 .25 

5. Best raffia or reed basket 75 .50 .25 

6. Best yarn cap or bonnet 75 .50 .25 

7. Best clay exhibit 75 .50 .25 

8. Best general exhibit of industrial work 75 .50 .25 

SEWING 

1. Best needle book. 50 .35 .25 

2. Best outing flannel nolder 60 .35 .25 

3. Best gingham holder 50 .35 .25 

4. Best sleevelets 50 .35 .25 

5. Best cap 50 .35 .25 

6. Best hemstitched towel 75 .50 .25 

7. Best stockinet darning 75 .50 .25 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 403 

8. Best buttonholes 75 .50 .25 

9. Best gingham bag 75 .50 .25 

10. Best sewing apron 75 .50 .25 

11. Best hemmed patch 75 .50 .25 

12. Best three-cornered darn 75 .50 .25 

13. Best outing flannel nightgown 75 .50 .25 

14. Best overhand patch 75 .50 .25 

15. Best general exhibit of sewing 1.00 

Each article is to be made as directed in 
course of study. 

MANUAL TRAINING 

1. Best match scratcher 50 .35 .25 

2. Best plant marker 50 .35 .25 

3. Best salt box 75 .50 .25 

4. Best match box 75 .50 .25 

5. Best other article .75 .50 .25 

6. Best composition on "Manual Training in 

the Rural School" 75 .50 .25 

7. Best general exhibit in manual training 1.00 

AGRICULTURE 

1. Corn judging contest. 75 .50 .25 

2. Corn germinator with germinating corn ready 

to count. Must include report on test and 

opinion of seed by exhibitor 75 .50 .25 

3. Long and short splice (both must be included) .75 .50 .25 

4. Best general exhibit of rope work including 

knots and splices 75 .50 .25 

5. Best noxious weed seed exhibit to be selected 

and determined by the school 75 .50 .25 

6. Best general exhibit in agriculture work 1.00 

Saving banks have been established in some of the 
schools due to the interest shown by one of the teachers. 
Nearly thirty depositors had saved about one hundred 
dollars in this school alone during the first four months. 
Monday is banking day, and all deposits are made in the 
morning, the students receiving stamps as their certificates. 
As soon as one dollar has been saved it is taken to one of 
the banks in Cokato and deposited. This is done for the 
pupils by the teacher. The idea is an interesting one for 
rural schools and is to be commended. 

Drainage has been mentioned as one of the practical 
things the farmers have had done, or at least the work 



404 



RURAL EDUCATION 




■a 

<u o 

II 



= a 



ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 



405 




406 



RURAL EDUCATION 



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^J 5>^5,£^ o> 




ik < < -J ^ < 



<I OJ oj o» OJ o> «> 




ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS 407 

has been surveyed and estimated by the school. The 
accompanying cuts show the evolution of a farm from a 
marsh to a very valuable piece of property. The improve- 
ments were largely planned and executed by the two young 
men who graduated from the "Short Course." The first 
drawing shows the original "frog ranch" as it was called 
by one of the young men in his graduation exercises. It 
also shows the drainage plans which were completed the 
next year. The second drawing shows the crops the next 
year following, and the third, the rearrangement of the 
fields and the permanent rotation plans. At least ten acres 
of this land were under water and hence worthless. This 
is now the best land on the farm and worth $125 to $150 
an acre, but is not for sale at any price. Ten acres more 
were good only for permanent pasture, and the other sixty 
acres of the farm were materially benefited by the drain- 
age. Five thousand feet of from four to seven-inch tile 
were used at a total cost of $450. At least $1,000 above 
the cost of drainage was realized on the reclaimed land 
alone, not to mention the improvements of the other land. 
Similar work has been done on other farms, due directly 
to the influence of the school. 

Association is not a panacea for all the educational ills 
by any means. In spite of the fact that so much good work 
along lines suggested in this chapter has been done in many 
communities besides the one mentioned as the type, there 
is a certain amount of dissatisfaction. Even at Cokato, 
where the spirit of co-operation is as good as that found 
anywhere in the state, one district withdrew shortly after 
it became associated. This was done purely on account of 
personal differences, as the district is now paying twice the 
amount in tuition that association cost. Its local school 
taxes have increased while those of the districts associated 



408 RURAL EDUCATION 

have nearly all decreased, and both it and the central dis- 
trict have lost the $200 associated aid. Almost the only 
objection raised is the cost of association, and yet in the 
entire district associated at Cokato the average school 
taxes are only 5.6 mills. As two mills are for association, 
these fifteen schools average only 3.6 mills for local school 
support. In practically every district the tuition bill 
would be greater out of association than the entire cost of 
association. If only a small fraction of the increase in 
farm yields and land values is due to the schools under 
association, which the critics cannot deny, then association 
is worth many times what it costs. It is like killing the 
goose that laid the golden egg to break up association of 
schools, as has been done in some places. The Putnam 
Act, including association of rural schools, is one of the 
best school laws ever placed on the statutes in Minnesota. 
It is primarily a law that benefits the rural school and the 
rural community, and yet, strange to say, the farmers 
themselves have been its greatest enemy. That they have 
been misled in the belief that their general taxes have been 
raised thereby, by politicians and other interested parties 
is certain, but such misunderstandings will adjust them- 
selves in the end. The "Minnesota Plan' 7 is likely to be 
more popular than ever, when public sentiment crystal- 
lizes in favor of better rural schools. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 

In a recent lecture on community welfare a speaker 
made the statement, "The one-room rural school is no 
good." He cited the results of a survey of the rural schools 
of Wisconsin among which was his home school as a child. 
This school had sent but three individuals to college in 
twenty-five years. The building and equipment had 
remained about the same, and the community life had 
changed but little in all that time. There are probably 
many who would disagree with the lecturer and stoutly 
defend the school of their fathers. But, notwithstanding 
our sentimental toleration of the 'Tittle red schoolhouse," 
it has outlived its day as surely as the occasional prairie 
"schooner" that may be seen on the Western plains. Asso- 
ciation with a central high school helps amazingly, as shown 
in the last chapter, and for the present is undoubtedly 
better for some sections of the country than consolidation. 
In localities where roads are poor and the country is sparsly 
settled, consolidation will be retarded; but the time is 
about at hand when the country will demand that rural 
children be given equal educational advantages with the 
village child. Why not? The country is surely not too 
poor to educate its children. Modern machinery relieves 
the farm of much of its drudgery and the necessity of 
keeping boys and girls at home to work no longer exists. 
The chief obstacles in the way of better country schools 
are the school buildings and their inadequate equipment. 

Consolidation of schools means several things that 
previously did not exist. It means, first of all, combining 
the territory of two or more school districts for the support 

409 



410 RURAL EDUCATION 

of the school. It means concentration of power. "In 
union there is strength." It means larger buildings, in- 
crease of school taxation, transportation of pupils, reor- 
ganization of grades, state inspection, and state aid. On 
account of these changes, conservative districts have been 
slow to effect consolidation. In Minnesota a few years ago 
a law was passed which encouraged consolidation of rural 
schools to such an extent that over one hundred have been 
effected since that time. A rural school commissioner has 
been appointed who devotes his time largely to these schools. 

The Holmberg Act of 1911 created three classes of con- 
solidated districts. Class A must have an area of at least 
eighteen sections of land, have at least four departments, 
and be well equipped for instruction in agriculture and 
other industrial work. The state aid available for such a 
school is $500 annually. Class B schools must have the 
same territory as Class A, three departments, and good 
equipment. They receive $250 annual aid and building 
aid as for Class A. These schools may draw as much as 
$2,000 for transportation of pupils. Class C schools have 
twelve or more sections, two departments, and draw rural 
school aid. High and graded schools having a tax in ex- 
cess of twenty mills and rural schools exceeding fifteen 
mills are entitled to further state aid. 

The various steps in the process of consolidation in 
Minnesota are briefly given for those who may not be 
familiar with the Holmberg Act. A plot of the proposed 
territory to be consolidated must be prepared by the county 
superintendent and submitted to the state Superintendent 
of Education for his approval. If approved, petitions are 
circulated in each of the districts interested. Only resi- 
dent property owners can sign the petition, and the sig- 
natures must be certified. At least twenty-five per cent 



CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 411 

of the freeholders of the district must sign the petition 
after which it is filed with the county superintendent. 
Within ten days the county superintendent must give ten 
days' posted notice, three in each district, and one week's 
published notice, of an election to vote on the question. At 
least twenty-five legal voters must be present at the elec- 
tion, voting by ballot for or against consolidation, and the 
polls must be open at least one hour. The result must be 
certified to the county superintendent by the chairman 
and clerk of the meeting who are chosen by the voters 
present. A majority of all votes cast legalizes consolida- 
tion. The county superintendent notifies the clerk of each 
district, the county auditor, and the Superintendent of 
Education that consolidation has been effected. 

Election of officers for the new independent district 
takes place at a meeting called for that purpose. Ten 
days posted notice must be given by the county superin- 
tendent before such a meeting. Six officers are elected. 
As soon as the new officers are elected, the records, funds, 
and other property of the several districts must be turned 
over to the new district. Bonded indebtedness at the time 
of consolidation remains on the original districts. 

Several forms of consolidated schools exist in Minnesota. 
High or graded schools with sufficient area to come within 
the Holmberg Act may qualify for state aid. Several are 
already doing so. All students living more than two miles 
from the school must be provided with transportation. In 
these schools the village becomes the center of the school 
activities, and, since in small towns the environment is 
essentially rural, the purpose of the law is not defeated. 
Perhaps the best type of consolidated school is that found 
in the country away from any railroad or village. It is no 
longer a fond dream of the imagination to have a high 



412 



RURAL EDUCATION 



school education carried almost to the very doors of the 
farmer's boys and girls. This is now an actual reality in 
many schools. Modern buildings with all the conveniences 
of city schools are being erected sometimes miles away from 
any town. Advanced ideas of school architecture and 
sanitation are being carried out, so that as a class the con- 
solidated schools of the state are second to none. Under 
the able leadership of Mr. E. M. Phillips, former Rural 
School Commissioner, these schools more than kept pace 
with Minnesota's vigorous educational policy. 

The consolidated school idea probably became best 
known in Minnesota through the activities of the school 
at Lewiston, in Winona county. Enough districts com- 
bined with the school in the little village to maintain not 
only a high school course, but departments of industrial 





P : « 


L .' i 






wi_ 












■|L fc 














\ 




■ ■ ■ . . 


■Hm 

V 


"V 




"■■;■""' 




w^ m 







Figure 149. Rope work in a consolidated school. 



CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 413 

work as well. A school farm is maintained and effective 
agricultural work done. The principal of the school is 
also the agriculturist. Wood and iron work is part of the 
regular course for the boys and they have recently built 
a blacksmith shop and a model henhouse. The girls have 
facilities for studying home economics. Special features 
of the school are the extension work done on the farms, 
contests, institutes and the short courses for farm boys and 
girls. On account of the unusual work which is being done 
in this district, the school was selected as one of the orig- 
inal Putnam schools. This school was thus honored, as 
all of the other nine were high schools. A large amount 
of industrial work is done in the grades by what the prin- 
cipal, Mr. Edwin S. Billings, calls the "direct — indirect" 
method. The grade teachers are first taught how to do the 
work in which they give instruction to the pupils. 

The John Swaney Consolidated School of Putnam 
county, Illinois, has a national reputation. It was named 
for the man who was broad-minded and large-hearted enough 
to give twenty-four acres of valuable wooded land for a 
campus. The school is located in the open country away 
from any town. The most remarkable thing about it, per- 
haps, is the fact that the movement for consolidation and 
transportation of pupils started with the farmers themselves. 
So enthusiastic did many of them become that about $2,000 
was raised by private subscription, in addition to the gift 
already mentioned. The school was erected and equipped 
at a cost of about $15,000. Practical courses are offered 
similar to those discussed for the Lewiston school. A school 
farm is maintained on the campus. Two wagons, especially 
constructed for the purpose, transport the pupils in spite of 
the Illinois corn land mud. Good teachers are provided 
and cared for. It was soon discovered that, if efficient 



414 RURAL EDUCATION 

teachers were to be kept in the county, provision must be 
made to house them. Accordingly, a few farmers, at their 
own expense, fitted up one of the old schoolhouses into a 
neat seven-room cottage. The teachers club together, hire 
a housekeeper, and divide the living expenses. They pay 
nine dollars a month rent for the cottage. Another build- 
ing on the campus has been fitted for the janitor's home. 
The janitor is engaged for the entire year and has charge of 
the school, the stables and the grounds. Such a school and 
community deserve a national reputation. 

The history of consolidation of schools in the United 
States is an interesting one. In early Colonial times the 
township was the unit of school administration. Sparse 
settlement, impassable roads, and lack of public funds pre- 
vented even a dream of consolidation in those early days. 
Therefore as settlement increased, more schools were needed 
and the New England taxpayers, lovers of true democracy, 
insisted that each school govern its own affairs. Accord- 
ingly, the smaller district was a necessity. The same year 
that Washington became President of the United States, 
Massachusetts passed a law bringing into being the small 
school district, which was destined to become the governing 
unit for most of the schools of the country. Horace Mann 
once declared this law to be the most unfortunate ever 
enacted under common school legislation. More than a 
century and a half later this same New England, convinced 
of the error of its ways, first saw the necessity of centraliza- 
tion in order to save the country schools. It was during 
the term of office of that other great President, Abraham 
Lincoln, that the same state that had unwittingly passed the 
reactionary law, created the consolidated school district. 
A short time afterwards a law providing for transportation 
at public expense made the consolidated school possible. 



CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 415 

Progress was naturally slow at first. The same cry of 
"fad" that has always been heard from reactionaries re- 
tarded the movement. But reactionaries have never yet 
been able to permanently retard the progressive American 
spirit. The idea of consolidation permeated the rest of 
New England; other Eastern states adopted it; the plan 
spread to the Middle West; it became popular in the South; 
and even the Western States, in spite of many obstacles, 
are consolidating their rural schools for the same reason 
that Massachusetts first started the movement. Nearly 
every state in the Union has now done something toward 
centralizing its common schools. In many states thousands 
of one-room schools have been closed, and in their places 
are hundreds of flourishing consolidated schools. Even in 
Hawaii this plan has been "annexed," and Canada has 
profited by the experience of "Uncle Sam." 

The objections to consolidation have been numerous, 
but practically all have been met, where public sentiment 
was really in favor of the movement. The most serious 
objection raised by the average community is the cost. 
The fundamental cause of the poor schools found in the 
country as compared with those in the villages and cities 
is to be found in the fact that the latter are willing to tax 
themselves two and one half times as much for schools as 
the former, taking the United States as a whole. That the 
total cost of establishing and maintaining a consolidated 
school will be more than the average cost for one-room 
schools is probably true. If not enough is spent in the 
average district to maintain efficient schools, it should be 
true. In states like Minnesota and others of the North- 
west where more than generous aid is given to the schools, 
the cost is negligible as compared to the results. In many 
communities modern schools have been established, stu- 



416 RURAL EDUCATION 

dents have been transported, and efficient results obtained 
at very little increase in total cost, and a decided decrease 
in the cost per pupil. The old plan meant irregular attend- 
ance and short terms; the new means the reverse. 

Transportation of pupils has been a veritable nightmare 
to some of those who oppose centralization. I have had 
those who suddenly took a great interest in their neighbors' 
children tell me that these pupils would surely contract 
pneumonia, if they had to ride in a cold rig three or four 
miles to school. Others were afraid of a stove, because it 
would do injury if the wagon or sled should be tipped 
over. Soapstones and other warmers were ineffective, and 
fur robes would be torn to pieces. Just why these other- 
wise peaceful and harmless young persons should suddenly 
become barbarians, while the maniacal driver was planning 
their annihilation, has never been explained. The facts 
are, and they scarcely need stating, that the vans can be 
made as comfortable, as safe, and as desirable as the best 
family conveyance in the neighborhood. Business can 
afford the best there is for the " delivery' ' of merchandise 
in many places. Why cannot children be "delivered" 
speedily and comfortably to school? They will be in the 
ideal rural school. 

The many advantages of consolidation hardly need dis- 
cussion, as they are evident to any observing person. Among 
them should be mentioned first of all the same educational 
advantages for the country children that the city boys and 
girls possess. This is merely the application of the Roose- 
veltian "square deal" to the rural communities, which the 
country folk themselves more than any other agency have 
prevented until recently. Better schools bring a better 
citizenship. More progressive farmers will settle in the 
community. Land will increase in value, as actual figures 



CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 417 

demonstrate. More desirable renters can be obtained, but 
there will be fewer farms to rent, as living in the country 
will be more desirable. The increase in land values much 
more than offsets the small increase in taxation, unless we 
figure as the farmer I once heard of who objected to larger 
crops, because his threshing bills would be so much higher. 
Finally, consolidation will greatly accelerate the "back to 
the farm" movement. 

As a solution of the country life problem the consolidated 
schools stand pre-eminent. In this connection Miss Mabel 
Carney, in her excellent treatment of the subject in "Country 
Life and the Country School" says, "Let it be repeated that 
the consolidated country school in its complete and fully 
adopted form is the best solution of the country school prob- 
lem yet devised. Personally, I do not wish to dogmatize 
upon any phase of country life, or anything else, but upon 
this point I stand firm. Years of struggle as a country 
teacher have thoroughly convinced me of this truth, and I 
challenge any one, be he farmer or educator, to assume the 
full responsibilities of a country school without becoming 
persuaded." That so many communities in so many states 
have already become persuaded, speaks well for the future. 



27 — 



CHAPTER XXX 

COUNTRY LIFE AND THE IDEAL 
RURAL SCHOOL 

The great country life movement started when Presi- 
dent Roosevelt appointed his commission is only just begin- 
ning to gain momentum. It has a fair start, but when the 
half-aroused country folk really awaken to their responsi- 
bilities as well as their opportunities, nothing can prevent 
the rural population of this country from the realization of 
the kind of life to which it is entitled. City life is artificial 
at best. Country life should be the ideal life. Long work- 
ing hours, lack of conveniences, poor roads, social ostra- 
cism, inadequate educational facilities, and other causes 
have thus far prevented this happy consumation. But 
America has solved big problems; andit will solve this one. 
The school will be no mean factor in the solution. 

The object of life is neither to merely eke out an exis- 
tence nor to amass a fortune, whether it be in the city or 
country. "It is not all of life to live." Culture is as es- 
sential in country life as in city life. Too often the object 




Figure 150. One ot the demonstration farms working in conjunction with the 
central school. This farm was drained and a rotation system planned by 
"short course" boys. See pages 404 to 407. 

418 



COUNTRY LIFE 419 

in rural life is to raise more corn, to feed more hogs, to buy 
more land, to raise more corn, to feed more hogs. An 
excellent means to an end, but what is the end? One often 
sees great barns erected high and dry to prevent disease, 
well lighted and equipped with the most modern systems 
of ventilation. Commendable, you say, and rightly so. 
Modern industry has shown that it is profitable to do 
these things for the cattle, the hogs and other animals; 
but modern country life has not yet been able to prove to 
the farmer that it is still more necessary to provide sanita- 
tion, conveniences and something for the higher life. How 
many farm homes have a special system of ventilation, and 
how many have a library? Some have. 

Rural recreation is now being provided in many com- 
munities. City employes usually have their Saturday 
afternoons off. The law of fatigue holds for physical as 
well as for mental work and has proved that within reason- 
able limits shorter hours with greater application of effort 
are conducive to products of at least as large a quantity 
and better quality. Why not apply this law more generally 
to the farms? If the Saturday afternoon picnic and ball 
game are profitable for some rural folk, why not for all? 
The value of rural social life is being recognized more and 
more. The rural church, the farmers' clubs, the women's 
clubs and other organizations are making themselves felt 
in the country as never before. Already the dawn of a 
brighter day appears on the horizon of a new country life. 

The rural school, as previously indicated, must be the 
very heart of the community. In a recent lecture before 
the Minnesota Educational Association on "The Schools 
That Made Denmark Famous," Mr. H. VV. Foght, of the 
United States Bureau of Education, showed conclusively 
this fact. The following abstract from the lecture is taken 



420 RURAL EDUCATION 

from the "Proceedings" of the association: "The lecture 
began with an emphasis of the fact that the schools, more 
than anything else, had made Denmark the agricultural 
nation that it is to-day. Fifty or sixty years ago Denmark 
was backward agriculturally as a result of war, and the 
nation was left in a lamentable. condition. Then the poets, 
philosophers, preachers and teachers came to the rescue. 
The watchward of the time was, 'Educate every man, 
woman and child in the kingdom, and educate them for 
every-day needs/ Thus, within a lifetime, the nation has 
set up a rural school system little short of marvelous. The 
Danish farm boys and girls enter the elementary rural 
schools at the age of six or seven. They are all obliged to 
attend school until they have completed the eight grades. 
Then the so-called apprentice school, which is really learn- 
ing practical work under government supervision, begins 
and continues for three years. When the youth is at last 
eighteen years of age, he enters a most remarkable culture 
school, known as the folk high school. Forty-eight per 
cent of all the farm youth attend these remarkable schools. 
Students are taken from eighteen to ninety-nine years of 
age; and, indeed, very many old men and women attend. 
This school has a one and two-year course. It is followed 
by practical work in one of the many local agricultural 
schools which are, in reality, small local agricultural col- 
leges. The girls at this point attend rural schools of house- 
hold economics. The result of this system of schools is 
such that the average farm boy or girl returns at the age of 
nineteen or twenty to the farm and farm tasks, contented 
to live there and to treat the soil in a scientific manner. 
These schools have made it possible for the Danish farmers 
to make good incomes from small tracts of land, which, if 
they were handled the way we treat our lands, would mean 



COUNTRY LIFE 421 

immediate bankruptcy." Such schools may not be ideal, 
but they surely come more nearly being so than most of 
those with which we are familiar. 

Of the various agencies in this country that have en- 
tered into the reorganization of our system in offering 
valuable constructive criticism, probably none is entitled 
to more credit than the Bankers' Associations. In Minne- 
sota, under the able leadership of Mr. Joseph Chapman, this 
organization has consistently championed the cause of 
practical education. In a financial way, collectively and 
individually, the bankers have rendered valuable assis- 
tance in agricultural contests and other work. 

The county superintendency, in a measure at least, is 
the key to the situation. The ideal rural school cannot 
be attained until this office is removed from politics. As 
long as efficient and progressive men and women are mar- 
tyrs to political intrigue or to the malice of parsimonious 
taxpayers, merely on account of their efficiency and progress- 
iveness — just so long must the schools suffer. In many 
states this has been done more or less effectively. In those 
states where a constitutional amendment is necessary for 
the enactment of laws making educational requirements 
for this office, it is the duty of the educators themselves, 
through their state associations, to urge the passage of such 
amendments. 

Progressive county superintendents already favor such 
action. No self-respecting candidate cares to wage a fight 
that involves time, money and sometimes even reputation, 
to prove his superiority over an opponent that may be 
backed by some powerful organization, whether it be 
church, lodge, or political ring. Let the candidate for this 
office stand squarely where he belongs — on his own merits 
and fitness for the position. Then let an educational 



422 RURAL EDUCATION 

board for the county choose the superintendent of schools 
from within the county or out, as seems best. Fortunately 
for the schools, the great majority of county superinten- 
dents are earnest, faithful, and efficient, in spite of anti- 
quated laws. Too often this office does not have the re- 
spect that it should. A superintendent who is qualified 
and whose heart is in his work neither receives the appre- 
ciation nor the remuneration to which he is entitled. I 
have known able men and women who have done more 
to advance the welfare of the county and make known its 
advantages, materially as well as educationally, beyond the 
county lines, than all the real estate firms and commercial 
clubs combined. All this was done through local and 
state contest work in agricultural and industrial lines, as 
well as regular academic work. And yet these faithful 
workers receive a salary, perhaps half as large as the county 
treasurer or auditor, and in the end they may expect to be 
turned out of office for doing their duty instead of mending 
political fences. Such a state of affairs is an insult to the 
office and a disgrace to a state that tolerates it. All honor 
to the hosts of worthy county superintendents. They will 
be made real supervisors in the ideal rural school. 

In conclusion the ideal rural school is not a myth. It is 
attainable. Such a school will provide for the physical, 
moral, mental and religious welfare of the individual. 
Whether there be one room or many, the building will be 
modern, sanitary, and well equipped. The grounds, park- 
like rather than bleak and barren, will be inspirational and 
aesthetic and will provide for physical as well as agricultural 
instruction. Nomadism will have vanished and the rural 
teacher, like the country preacher, will have become as 
much a permanent part of the community as the farmer. 
The teachers' cottage will be a conspicuous part of the 



COUNTRY LIFE 



423 




Figure 152. — Floor plan of one-teacher model school. 



424 



RURAL EDUCATION 




Figure 153. Modern community school building at Payette, Idaho. 




Figure 154. A model rural school building. 



COUNTRY LIFE 425 

campus. There will be demand for only a superior type of 
teacher, highly trained and peculiarly adapted to modern 
country life. The state will do its part and there will be 
real inspection of rural schools. The farmer will realize 
that city school quality of instruction cannot be given on a 
country school tax rate, and the school will be made a 
community center. Through its redirected course of study 
it will be the leading spirit in a broader country life, in 
making better farms, better homes and better people. In 
that day when public sentiment shall make Education as 
honorable as War and Politics, shall the "Ideal Rural 
School" be attained. Then also shall the teacher be exalted 
to her rightful position and we shall exclaim with the poet: 

To-day, as by the old schoolhouse I passed, 

I saw a face where years of toil and care 

Had left their mark and yet to me 'twas fair 
In memory's magic light upon it cast. 

My boyhood years are told again since last 

I thought her cruel, and lessons hard to learn; 

Ah me! I've found a teacher far more stern, 
And learned hard lessons in a school more vast. 

God's richest blessings on thee, faithful one, 

Of that vast throng whose skill and patience mold 

The nation's destiny! A service thine 

Immeasurable, not bought with paltry gold. 

When school is out, and evening's first stars shine, 
Thou'lt hear the blessed Master's voice, "Well done!" 



INDEX 



(References are to pages.) 



Accounts, 184 
Advantages of 

Association, 395 

Consolidation, 416 
Agriculture, 77, 207, 331 
Animal husbandry booklets, 346 
Arithmetic, 175 
Art, 149 

Assignment of lessons, 74 
Association of schools, 380 

Bacteria, 356 
Biography, 154 
Birds, 353 
Booklets, 331 

Bacteria, 356 

Birds, 353 

Bread baking, 357 

Cattle, 349 

Corn, 333 

Drainage, 361 

Flies, 355 

Good roads, 361 

Hogs, 351 

Home economics, 355 

Horses, 352 

Insects, 337 

Orchards, 341 

Poultry, 347 

Rotation of crops, 335 

Strawberries, 340 

Vegetable garden, 343 



Weeds, 336 

Wood preservatives, 360 
Bread making, 357 

Cattle, 349 

Child development, 24 

Civics, 164 

Circulating library, 377 

Consolidation of schools, 409 

Contests, 139, 367, 368, 401 

Corn, 333 

Corporal punishment, 20, 74 

Country life, 418 

County agent, 372 

County superintendent, 421 

County training schools, 61 

Course of study 

Industrial, 216 

Junior high school, 394 

Normal, 69 

Rural, 77 

Senior high school, 394 

Short course, 390 
Cow testing, 369 

Daily program, 88 
Devices for class use, 194 
Diseases, 37 

Domestic economy, 207, 386 
Drainage, 361, 403 
Dramatization, 121, 194 
Drills for expression, 126 



427 



428 



INDEX 



Economic value of education, 12 
Equipment for lunch, 283 
Evolution of school system, 11 
Examinations, 75 
Exhibits, 332, 401 

Farmers' clubs, 375 
Flash card exercises, 126 
Flies, 355 
Food, 35, 122 

Games, 53, 195 

Gardening, 343 

Geography, 167 

General industrial work, 210 

Good roads, 361 

Group reading, 103 

High school training departments, 

62 
History, 153 
Hog cholera, 370 
Hogs, 351 
Home credits, 365 
Home economics booklets, 355 
Home training, 21 
Horses, 352 

Horticulture booklets, 340 
Hot lunch, 279 
Housekeeping, 81 
Hygiene, 28, 122 
Ideal rural school, 418 
Industrial supplies, 213, 400 
Industrial training, 210 
Insects, 337 
Institutes, 369, 398 

Junior high school, 392 



Knots, 233 

Land values, 396 
Language, 117 
Library aid, 17 
Literature, 117 
Lunches, 36 
Lyceum courses, 376 

Manual training, 303 
Minnesota plan, 62 
Monotones, 144 
Morals and conduct, 123 
Music, 142 

Numbers, 175 
Nursery classics, 129 

Orchards, 341 
Organization of 

Farmers' clubs, 376 

Schools, 381, 410 
Outside activities, 363 

Pensions, 68 

Phonics, 100, 115 - 

Pictures, 120 

Play, 38 

Playgrounds, 38 

Poultry, 347 

Practice teaching, 63 

Premium list, 402 

Program, daily, 88 

Projects for manual training, 308 

Punishment, 20, 74 

Qualification of industrial teach- 
ers, 380 



INDEX 



429 



Reading, 100 

Reading material, 104, 114, 116 

Recess, 43, 92 

Records, 81 

Religion, 26 

Recipes for lunches, 287 

Rope work, 233 

Rotation of crops, 335 

Sanitation, 82 
Savings banks, 403 
Scale songs, 144 
School buildings, 424 
School farm, 208, 383, 396 
School management, 70 
School plans, 423 
Seat work, 187, 191, 192 
Seed testing, 371 
Sewing, 244 
Sex hygiene, 27 
Short course, 389 
Sleeping rooms, 30 
Social center, 373 
Special devices, 194 
Spelling, 136 
State aid, 16, 382, 410 
State certificates, 66 
State normal schools, 60 



Stitches, 246 
Strawberries, 340 
Study program, 90 
Suggestions to 

Parents, 19 

Teachers, 19 

Tasks and duties, 365 

Taxes, 15, 408 

Teachers' meetings, 85, 399 

Tools, 305 

Training teachers, 54, 388 

Transportation of pupils, 416 

Trend of industrial education, 202 

Tuberculin test, 370 

Tuition, 381 

Ungraded room, 64, 389 

Vacation schools, 205 
Vegetable gardening, 343 
Ventilation, 30 

Wages, 67 

Weeds, 336 

Wood preservatives, 360 

Writing, 132 



Books and Equipment 
for Rural Schools 

A Good Book Is an Inspiration, 
a Staff and a Step 

We make a specialty of supply- 
ing not only texts for general school 
use,but library and reference books 
and all those which are peculiarly 
intended for teachers. 

Everything in the nature of 
books, permanent equipment or 
working material which is recom- 
mended in this book will be either 
furnished at lowest prices or we 
will refer teachers to responsible 
firms making a specialty of indus- 
trial supplies. 

We invite correspondence and 
offer the service and co-operation 
of our Educational Department. 

Webb Publishing Company 

55-79 East Tenth Street 

ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA 



Agricultural Text Books for High Schools 

The four agricultural books described below are planned especially for High 
Schools in which agriculture is taught. They constitute a complete four year 
graded course. Each book is complete in itself and is prepared to cover the sub- 
ject as thoroughly as the time allotted to agriculture in one year will permit. 

They are thoroughly practical; they discuss subjects in their logical order, con- 
tain laboratory exercises and experimental work, and a list of questions after each 
chapter to emphasize the important features of each lesson. These books 
constitute a complete, concise and practical course that will meet the urgent need 
of the modern agricultural High School. 



FIELD CROPS, by A. D. Wilson, Superintendent of Extension and Farmers' Institutes, 
Minnesota College of Agriculture; and C. W. Warburton, Agronomist, Bureau of Plant 
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. An intensely practical discussion of the 
American farm crops is presented in this volume, which abounds in helpful suggestions 
and valuable information for the most successful growing, harvesting, and marketing of 
the various crops. It is divided into three parts, containing also two introductory 
chapters on the classification of crops and the growth of plants. 

Part I. Contains seven chapters, discussing in detail all of the Grain Crops. 

Part II. Contains twelve chapters, discussing all of the Forage Crops. 

Part III. Contains six chapters, discussing fully the Miscellaneous Crops, including: 
potatoes, sugar crops, fibre crops, tobacco, weeds, rotation, etc. 

This is the most complete and authentic book for the purpose on the market. It 
contains about 450 pages, nearly 200 illustrations, is printed on high grade book paper 
from clear type and bound in a neat, handsome and durable cloth cover. 

Price $1.50 net 

BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, by Chas. S. Plumb, Professor of Animal 
Husbandry, University of Ohio, and Author of "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, ,, 
"Indian Corn Culture" and "Animal Husbandry Literature," etc. This is the first 
volume prepared on the subject of Animal Husbandry that is particularly adapted to the 
needs of high school students in agriculture. Professor Plumb has long been known as 
one of the leading instructors and investigators in the Animal Husbandry field, as a 
Judge of live stock, and as a clear thinker and interesting writer on live stock subjects, 
in this new volume he has concentrated the results of his many years' experience in 
teaching and experimentation. The matter is presented in a simple, practical manner 
that makes it particularly valuable for the purpose for which it is intended. 

Among the important subjects which are discussed minutely are: Breeds of Horses, 
Cattle, Sheep and Swine; Animal Type and Its Importance; Reasons and Methods of 
Judging Live Stock; Points of the Horse; Judging Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Swine, etc.; 
Heredity: its Meaning and Influences; Selection and Its Importance; Pedigrees and 
their Value; Suggestions to Young Breeders; Composition of Plants and Animals; 
Influence of Foods on Body; Feeding Standards, Origin and Use; How to Calculate a 
Ration; Coarse Feeds and their Value; Concentrated Feed and their Value; Poultry: 
Feeding, Management and Marketing; and the General Management of Cattle. 

This will be a book of about 350 pages profusely illustrated, well printed, durably 

bound, Price $1.25 net 

SOILS AND SOIL FERTILITY, by A. R. Whitson, Professor of Soils, University of 
Wisconsin; and H. L. Walster, Instructor of Soils, University of Wisconsin. A book 
especially prepared as a text book on the subject of soils for high school courses in 
agriculture. Among the most important subjects fully discussed are: Conditions Essential 
to Plant Growth; Origin of the Soil; Supply of Chemical Elements; Nitrogen, Phos- 
phorous and Potash; Soil Analysis; Manures; Artificial Fertilizers; Physical Properties of 
Soils and Plant Growth; Moisture; Temperature and Ventilation; Drainage; Erosion; 
Tillage; Humus; Relation of Crops to Climate and Soils; Rotation of Crops; Classifica- 
tion of Soils; Management; Dry Farming and Irrigation; Selection of Farms. This book 
does not go into the scientific detail of the structure and chemical composition of soils, 
but discusses in a simple, practical way the best methods of handling the land to pro- 
duce good crops. About 300 pages, well illustrated, printed on high grade paper, bound 

durably in cloth cover. Price $1.25 net 

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, by J. B. Davidson, Professor of Agricultural 
Engineering, Iowa State College,and Joint Author of "Farm Machinery and Farm Motors." 
A practical elementary book on the subjects of Rural Engineering for use in high schools. 
The fundamental principles of agricultural engineering are presented in a simple practical 
manner, entirely within the comprehension of the high school student. 

Among the subjects discussed are: Agricultural Surveying, Drainage, Irrigation, Road 
Construction; Farm Machinery, including the relation of Farm Machinery to Farm 
Operations, Elements of Machines, Material and Lubrication; Tillage Machinery, Seeding 
Machinery, Harvesting Machinery, Combined Harvester and Thresher, Manure 
Spreaders, Haying Machinery, Threshing Machinery, Feed Cutters, Huskers and 
Shredders, Feed Mills, Wagons, Buggies, Sleds, and Pump Machinery; Farm Motors, 
including Sources of energy, Transformation of energy, Prime Movers, and hand work; 
Wind mill, Steam Engine, Steam and Gas Tractors and Electric Motors; Farm struc- 
tures, and Farm Sanitation. This book will contain about 450 pages with many illus- 
trations from photographs and drawings, printed on high grade paper from clear type, 
and will be handsomely bound in durable cloth covers. Price $1.50 net 

Instructors, teachers and students of agriculture will find these books very helpful, as 
they contain authentic information on the various subjects discussed, that is given in 
clear concise language which is easily understood; exercises and experiments foilow all 
lessons. Every effort has been made to make these books interesting, practical and 
reliable. Send all orders to 

WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA. 



VEGETABLE GARDENING 

By SAMUEL B. GREEN, late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, 
University of Minnesota. 

252 pages, profusely illustrated, cloth. $1.00. postpaid. 

A manual on the growing of vegetables for home use and for the 
market. The immense sale of this book to farmers and gardeners, and 
its wide adoption for class-room work in agricultural schools and col- 
leges, prove it to be the standard work published on this subject. This 
is the 12th revised edition. We have a paper covered edition of this 
book which sells for 50c. 



DAIRY LABORATORY GUIDE 

By G. L. MARTIN, Professor of Dairying, North Dakota Agricultural 

College. 



140 pages, illustrated, cloth, 50c. postpaid. 



This laboratory manual offers a carefully organized series of exer- 
cises covering the principles of modern dairy practice, with sugges- 
tions for their practical application. It covers the Production and Care, 
Testing, Manufacture, and Marketing, of Dairy Products. An indis- 
pensable guide for classes in Dairying and for Creamerymen. 



SILOS: CONSTRUCTION AND SERVICE 
By M. L. KING, formerly Silo Expert, Iowa State College, and Orig- 
inator of the Iowa Silo. 



100 pages, well illustrated, cloth, 50c. postpaid. 



There is no recent American book on silo building, and none of 
any date that covers the many types of silos now in use and gives 
details of their construction. Mr. King here presents to the intended 
builder the principles of silo construction, and the advantages and dis- 
advantages of each type; but more particularly he gives the actual 
method of construction, with the main points of silo management. 

RULES OF ORDER FOR EVERY DAY USE 
AND CIVIL GOVERNMENT MADE PLAIN 

By HENRY SLADE GOFF, Author of the GofTs Historical Maps. 



113 pages, illustrated, cloth, 50c, postpaid. 



There has long been a demand for an accurate Rules of Order text 
that was brief yet sufficiently complete for all practical needs. This 
is such a book. The matter is so clear, so well arranged, and so suc- 
cinct that those interested in social centers, clubs, societies, etc., will 
be delighted with it. The book also presents the main points of civil 
government that everyone ought to know. 



